Drude LorentzFreeElectronTheorypresentation
Drude LorentzFreeElectronTheorypresentation
Drude LorentzFreeElectronTheorypresentation
Prof.P. Ravindran,
Department of Physics, Central University of Tamil
Nadu, India
http://folk.uio.no/ravi/CMP2013
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Drude’sAssumptions:
Drude assumed that the compensating positive charge was attached to
much heavier particles, so it is immobile.
In Drude model, when atoms of a metallic element are brought together
to form a metal, the valence electrons from each atom become detached and
wander freely through the metal, while the metallic ions remain intact and
play the role of the immobile positive particles.
1. Matter consists of light negatively charged electrons which are mobile, &
heavy, static, positively charged ions.
2. The only interactions are electron-ion collisions, which take place in a
very short time t.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
3. Electron-ion collisions are assumed to dominate, as these will
abruptly alter the electron velocity & maintain thermal
equilibrium.
4. The probability of an electron suffering a collision in a short time
dt is dt/t, where 1/t the scattering rate . Electrons emerge from
each collision with both the direction & magnitude of their
velocity changed; the magnitude is changed due to the local
temperature at the collision point. 1/t is often an adjustable
parameter.
Ion
Mean time between
collisions is t.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Some of these electrons ‘Z’, are the relatively weakly bound
valence electrons. The remaining (Za-Z) electrons are relatively
tightly bound to the nucleus and are known as the core electrons.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The density of the electron gas is calculated as follows. A
metallic element contains 6.023X1023 atoms per mole
(Avogadro’s number) and ρm/A moles per m3
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
These densities are typically a thousand times greater
than those of a classical gas at normal temperature and
pressures.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
BASIC ASSUMPTION FOR KINETIC THEORY OF
A NEUTRAL DILUTE GAS
4. In Drude model, due to kinetic theory of collision, that abruptly alter the
velocity of an electron. Drude attributed the electrons bouncing off the
impenetrable ion cores.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The time ‘t’ is known as the relaxation time and it is defined as the
time taken by an electron between two successive collisions. That
relaxation time is also called mean free time [or] collision time.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Success of classical free electron theory
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drawbacks of classical free
electron theory
From the classical free electron theory the value of specific heat of metals is given by
4.5R, where ‘R’ is called the universal gas constant. But the experimental value of specific
heat is nearly equal to 3R.
At low temperature, the electrical conductivity and the thermal conductivity vary in
different ways. Therefore K/σT is not a constant. But in classical free electron theory, it
is a constant in all temperature.
The photoelectric effect, Compton effect and the black body radiation cannot be
explained by the classical free electron theory.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude’s classical theory
so at room temp.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude’s classical theory
relaxation time
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
...this must surely be wrong....
The electrons should strongly interact with each other. Why
don’t they?
The electrons should strongly interact with the lattice ions.
Why don’t they?
Using classical statistics for the electrons cannot be right.
This is easy to see:
for RT
is some Å
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
we apply an electric field. The equation of motion is
integration gives
for we get
remember:
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
current density
Ohm’s law
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
Ohm’s law
and the
resistivity
and the
mobility
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Validity of Ohm’s law
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The Wiedemann-Franz law
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The Wiedemann Franz law
Estimated thermal conductivity
(from a classical ideal gas)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Many open questions:
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Å – Bohr radius
● Electron densities are thousands times greater than those of a gas at normal conditions
● There are strong electron-electron and electron-ion electromagnetic interactions
In spite of this the Drude theory treats the electron gas by the methods of
the kinetic theory of a neutral dilute gas
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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At room temperatures
resistivities of metals are typically of the order of microohm centimeters (mohm-cm)
-14 – 10
and t is typically 10 -15 s
consistent with Drude’s view that collisions are due to electron bumping into ions
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The Drude Model - Results
Main Results
1) DC Conductivity ( )
2) Hall Coefficient ( )
3) AC Conductivity ( )
- plasma frequency
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The Drude Model - results
B. Main Results
4) Thermal Conductivity ( )
- Wiedemann-Franz law
5) Thermopower ( )
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude Conductivity
Ohm’s “Law”: V = IR
The ResistanceR is a property of the conductor (e.g. a wire) which
depends on its dimensions, V is a voltage drop & I is a current. In
microscopic physics, it is more common to express Ohm’s “Law” in
terms of a dimension-independent conductivity (or resistivity) which
is intrinsic to the material the wire is made from.
In this notation, Ohm’s “Law” is written
E = j or j = sE (1)
Here, E = the electric field, j = the current density, the resistivity
& s the conductivity of the material.
Consider n electrons per unit volume, all moving in the direction of
the current with velocity v.
The number of electrons crossing area
A in time dt is nAvdt
A
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The charge crossing A in dt is -nevAdt, so
j = -nev. (2)
field direction.
(3)
vdrift = -eEt / m
(3)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
As is often the case for physics models, this result for σ has been
obtained using some very simple assumptions, which surely cannot
be correct! How can we test this result?
First - does it in any way self-justify its assumptions?
Does the Drude assumption of scattering from ions seem sensible?
Check it by measuring s for a series of known metals, and, using
sensible estimates for n, e and m, estimate t.
14
Result - t 10 s at room temperature.
Instead of a an average scattering time t, it’s often necessary to formulate a
theory of conductivity in terms of an average distance between collisions. This
distance is called the mean free path
between collisions. To do this, we have to
also consider the average electron velocity. This should not be vdrift, which is
the electron velocity in the presence of a field. Instead, it should be vrandom, the
velocity associated with the intrinsic thermal energy of the electrons.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory 30
Estimate vrandom by treating the electrons as a classical gas and
using the well-known result:
½(m)v2random = (3/2)(kB)T
(for revision see for example Halliday and Resnick, Physics (Wiley)).
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory 31
Go after one of the most striking experimental results on metals,
the Wiedemann-Franz law.
Since 1853, it had been known that one of the most universal
properties of metals concerns a relationship between thermal and
electrical conductivity.
ΔV
j
jq -ΔT
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude’s assumption (with some experimental backup) was that k in metals is
dominated by the electronic contribution.
k = (1/3)vrandomlC el (4)
where Cel is the electronic specific heat per unit volume. If each electron has an
energy (3/2)k B T, C
el = dEtot/VdT = (3/2) nkB T .
(5)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Dividing by T gives the simple result that
(6)
This is exactly the kind of result that we always like to reach. All
the parameters that might be regarded in some way as suspect
have dropped out, leaving what looks like it might be a universal
quantity.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
So, Drude’s model appeared to be reasonably self-consistent in
identifying electron-ion collisions as the main scattering mechanism,
and had a triumph regarding the most universal known property of
metals.
As would happen today, this was enough to set it up as the main theory
of metals for two decades. However, fundamental problems began to
emerge:
1. It could not explain the observation of positive Hall coefficients
in many metals.
2. As more became known about metals at low temperatures, it was
obvious that since the conductivity increased sharply, l was far too
long to be explained by simple electron-ion scattering.
3. A vital part of the thermal conductivity analysis is the use of the
kinetic theory value of 3/2nkB for the electronic specific heat.
Measurements gave no evidence for a contribution of this size.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
The physics of solids is deeply quantum mechanical; indeed
condensed matter is arguably the best ‘laboratory’ for studying
subtle quantum mechanical effects in the 21st century.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Gas of classical charged particles, electrons, moves through immobile
heavy ions arranged in a lattice, vrms from equipartition theorem
(which is of course derived from Boltzmann statistics)
Figure 12.11 (a) Random successive displacements of an electron in a metal without an applied electric field.
37
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
If there is an electric
field E, there is also a
drift speed vd (108 times
smaller than rms
v ) but
proportional to E,
equal for all electrons
σCu, 300 K = 5.3106 (Ωm)-1 compare with experimental value 59 106 (Ωm) -1,
something must we wrong with the classical L and vrms
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Result of Drude theory one order of magnitude too small, so L
must be much larger, this is because the electrons are not classical
particles, but wavicals, don’t scatter like particles, in addition, the
vrms from Boltzmann-Maxwell is one order of magnitude smaller
than the vfermi following from Fermi-Dirac statistics
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
0.5
So ρ ~T theory for all
temperatures, but ρ ~T for
reasonably high T , so
Drude’s theory must be
wrong !
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Phenomenological similarity conduction of electricity and conduction
of heat, so free electron gas should also be the key to understanding
thermal conductivity
Ohm’s law with Voltage gradient,
Lets
continue
-1 -1
Experimental value for Cu at (300 K) = 390 Wm K , again
one order of magnitude too small, actually roughly 20 times
too small
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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With Maxwell-
Boltzmann
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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For Cu (at 300 K), EF = 7.05 eV , Fermi energies have only small temperature dependency,
frequently neglected
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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So here something two orders of two magnitude too small (L) gets
divided by something one order of magnitude too small (vrms),
i.e. the result for electrical conductivity must be one order of
magnitude too small, which is observed !!
But L for particle is quite reasonable, so replace Vrms with Vfermi and
the conductivity gets one order of magnitude larger, which is close to
the experimental observation, so that one keeps the Drude theory of
electrical conductivity as a classical approximation for room
temperature
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
.
In effect, neither the high vrms of 105 m/s of the electrons
derived from the equipartion theorem or the 10 times higher
Fermi speed do not contribute directly to conducting a current
since each electrons goes in any directions with an equal
likelihood and this speeds averages out to zero charge transport
in the absence of E
Figure 12.11 (a) Random successive displacements of an electron in a metal without an applied
electric field. (b) A combination of random displacements and displacements produced by an
external electric field. The net effect of the electric field is to add together multiple displacements
of length vd t opposite the field direction. For purposes of illustration, this figure greatly
exaggerates the size of v d compared with vrms.
50
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Wait a minute, K has something to do with the heat capacity that
we derived from the equipartion theorem
We had the result earlier that the contribution of the electron gas
is only about one hundredth of what one would expect from an
ideal gas, Cv for ideal gas is actually two orders or magnitude
larger than for a real electron gas, so that are two orders of
magnitude in excess, with the product of vrms and L for particle
three orders of magnitude too small, we should calculate
classically thermal conductivities that are one order of
magnitude too small, which is observed !!!
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Back to the problem of the temperature dependency of
resistivity Drude’s theory predicted a dependency on square root of T, but at reasonably high
temperatures, the dependency seems to be linear
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
At low temperatures, there are hardly any phonons,
scattering of electrons is due to impurity atoms and
lattice defects, if it were not for them, there would not be
any resistance to the flow of electricity at zero
temperature
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Electric Conduction
Drude’s model
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Electric Conduction
Drude’s model (cont’d)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Electric Conduction
Drude’s model (cont’d)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Exercise 1
−8
Calculate the resistance of a coil of platinum wire with diameter 0.5 mm and length 20 m at 20 C given =11×10 m. Also determine the resistance at 1000 C, given that for
−3
platinum =3.93×10 /°C.
But so we have :
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
63
Exercise 2
A 1000 W hair dryer manufactured in the USA operates on a 120 V source. Determine the resistance of the hair dryer, and the current it draws.
The hair dryer is taken to the UK where it is turned on with a 240 V source.
What happens?
This is four times the hair dryer’s power rating – BANG and SMOKE!
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Current
Microscopic view of current
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Current
Microscopic view of current (cont’d)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
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Current
Microscopic view of current (cont’d)
• In time t the electrons move a distance
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
68
An Overview
In this chapter,
we will treat conduction ‘e’ in metal as
“free charges” that can be accelerated
by an applied electric field, to explain
the electrical and thermal conduction in
a solid.
Thermal conduction,i.e., the conduction of thermal E from higher to lower temperature regions in a metal, involves the
conduction ‘e’ carrying the energy. Therefore, the relationship between the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity
will be reviewed in this textbook.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.1 Classical theory : The DRUDE model
Goal: To find out the relation between the conductivity (or resistivity) and drift velocity
, and thereby its relation to mean free time and drift mobility, from the description of the
current density
In a conductor where ‘e’ drift in the presence of an electric field,
current density is defined as the net amount of charge flowing across a unit area per
unit time
J : current density
q : net quantity of charge flowing through an
area A at Ex
In this system, electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the x-direction, called the drift velocity.
(Here Ex is the electric field.)
Drift velocity is defined as
the average velocity of electrons in the x direction at time t, denote by vdx(t)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons
Current density in the x direction can be rewritten as a function of the drift velocity
: In time Δt, the total charge Δq crossing the area A is enAΔx, where Δx=vdxΔt and n is assumed to be the #
of ‘e’ per unit volume in the conductor (n=N/V).
[2.2] : time dependent current density is useful since the average velocity at one time is not the same as at
another time, due to the change of Ex
Think of motions of a conduction ‘e’ in metals before calculating Vdx.
(a) (b) In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction. This net drift
A conduction ‘e’ in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many
mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by thermal scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, Δx, from its initial position
vibrations of the atoms. toward the positive terminal
In the absence of an applied field
there is no net drift in any direction.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons
To calculate the drift velocity vdx of the ‘e’ due to applied field Ex, we first consider the
velocity vxi of the ith ‘e’ in the x direction at t. Since is the acceleration a of the ‘e’ [F=qE=ma],
vxi in the x direction at t is given by
Let uxi be the initial velocity of ‘e’ i in the x direction just after the collision. Vxi is written as the
sum of uxi and the acceleration of the ‘e’ after the collision. Here, we suppose that its last collision
was at time ti; therefore, for time (t-ti), it accelerated free of collisions, as shown in Fig.2.3.
However, this is only for the ith electron. We need the average
velocity vdx for all such electrons along x as the following eqn.
Fig 2.3 Velocity gained in the x direction at time t from the electric field ( Ex) for three different electrons.
There will be N electrons to consider in the metal.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons
Drift mobility (vs. mean free time)
: widely used electronic parameter in semiconductor device physics.
Suppose that τ is the mean free time or mean scattering time. Then, for some electrons, (t-ti) will be greater than ,and for others, it will
be shorter, as shown in Fig 2.3. Averaging (t-ti) for N electrons will be the same as . Thus we can substitute for (t-ti) in the previous
expression to obtain
Equation 2.3 shows that the drift velocity increases linearly with the applied field. The constant of proportionality has been given
a special name and symbol, called drift mobility , which is defined as
, which is often called the relaxation time, is directly related to the microscopic processes that cause the scattering of the electrons in
the metal; that is, lattice vibration, crystal imperfections, and impurities.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.1.1 Metals and conduction by electrons
From the expression for the drift velocity vdx the current density Jx follows immediately… by substituting Equation 2.4 into 2.2, that is,
Therefore, the current density is proportional to the electric field and the conductivity term is given by
Then, let’s find out temperature dependence of conductivity (or resistivity) of a metal
by considering the mean time .
The mean time between collisions has further significance. Its 1/ represents the mean frequency of collisions or scattering
events; that is 1/ is the mean probability per unit time that the electron will be scattered. Therefore, during a small time interval , the
probability of scattering will be .
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity
To find the temperature dependence of , let’s consider the temperature dependence of the mean free time , since this
determines the drift velocity.
Fig 2.5 scattering of an electron from the thermal vibration of the atoms. The
electron travels a mean distance between collisions.
Since the scattering cross-sectional area is S, in the volume Sl there must be at
least one scatterer as
volume
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity
Lattice-scattering-limited conductivity
: the resistivity of a pure metal wire increase linearly with the temperature, due to the scattering of conduction electrons by thermal
vibrations of the atoms. feature of a metal (cf. semiconductors)
The thermal vibrations of the atom can be considered to be simple harmonic motion, much
the same way as that of a mass M attached to a spring. From the kinetic theory of matter,
This makes sense because raising the T increases atomic vibrations. Thus
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.3 MATTHIESSEN’s and NORDHEIM’s Rules.
Let’s consider a metal alloy that has randomly distributed impurity atoms.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.3.1 Matthiessen’s rule and the temperature coefficient
of resistivity
This summation rule of resistivities from different scattering mechanisms is called Matthiessen’s rule.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR)
Eqn. 2.17 indicates that the resistivity of a metal varies with T, with A and B depending on the material. Instead of listing A and B in
resistivity tables, we prefer a temperature coefficient that refers to small, normalized changes around a reference temperature.
&
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Resistivity of various metals vs. T
However is only an approximation for some metals and not true for all metals.
This is because the origin of the scattering may be different depending on the temperature.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.3.2 Solid solution and Nordheim’s rule
How does the resistivity of solid solutions change with alloy composition ?
In an isomorphous alloy of two metals, that is, a binary alloy that forms a solid solution (Ni-Cr alloy), we would expect Eqn 2.15 to
apply, with the temperature-independent impurity contribution increasing with the concentration of solute atoms.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.3.2 Solid solution and nordheim’s rule
Nordheim’s rule for solid solutions : an important semiempirical Eqn.
that can be used to predict the resistivity of an alloy, which relates the
impurity resistivity to the atomic fraction X of solute atoms in a solid
solution, as follows:
C (Nordheim’s coefficient):
represents effectiveness of the solute atom in
consistent
increasing the resistivity.
%Nordheim’s rule assumes that the solid solution has the solute atoms randomly
distributed in the lattice, and these random distributions of impurities cause the ‘e’ to
become scattered as they whiz around the crystal.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
2.3.2 Solid solution and Nordheim’s rule
Combination of Matthiessen and Nordheim rules leads to a general expression for ρ of the solid solution:
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
A Model for Electrical
Conduction:
The Drude Model Atoms
Electrons
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude Model
-1
(C )
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Plasma: A neutral gas of heavy ions and light electrons. Metals and doped
86
semiconductors can be treated as plasmas because they contain equal numbers of fixed
positive ions and free electrons. Free electrons in this system experience no : restoring
force from the medium when they interact with electromagnetic waves. driven by the
electric field of a light wave.
p: plasma frequency
For a lightly damped system, = 0, so that
The reflectivity:
By substituting
Therefore:
The damping time t = 1/ . The shows that the electron is being accelerated by the field,
but loses its momentum in the time t. So t is the momentum scattering time. t is
-14 -13
typically in the range 10 —10 s, hence optical frequency must be used to obtain
information about t.
-i t n, k and , the real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index and the
By substituting v = v0e , attenuation coefficient can be worked out. At very low frequencies that satisfy t << 1 and
1/2
2 >> 1,, n k = ( 2 / 2 ) , thus:
This gives:
This implies that AC field can only penetrate a short distance into a conductor such as a
metal.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
7.3 Metals 88
The valence electrons is free. The density N is equal to the density of metal atoms multiplied
by their valency;
The characteristic scattering time t can be determined by the measurement of s.
Free
28 electron
29 density
-3 and plasma properties of some metals. The values of N are in the range
10 —10 m . the very large values of Nlead to plasma high electrical and thermal The figure shows that the reflectivity of Al is over 80% up
conductivities and plasma frequency in the UV region. to 15 eV, and then drops off to zero at higher frequencies.
From this figure, one can see that the model accounts for
the general shape of the spectrum, but there are some
important detials that are not explained.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
7.3.2 Interband transitions in metals
2 1
Electronic configuration: [Ne]3s 3p with three valence
89
electrons; the first Brillouin zone is completely full, and the valence electrons spread into the second,
third and slightly into the fourth zones. The bands are filled up to the Fermi energy EF, and direct
Interband absorption is important in metals because the EM penetrate a short distance transitions can take place from any the states below the Fermi level to unoccupied bands directly above
into the surface, and if there is a significant probability for interband absorption, the them on the E—k diagram. “parallel band effect” corresponding to the dip in the reflectivity at 1.5 eV
reflectivity will be reduced from the free carrier value. The interband absorption spectra of originates the high density of states between the two parallel bands. Moreover, there are further
metals are determined by their complicated band structures and Fermi surfaces. transition at a whole range of photon energies greater than 1.5 eV. The density of states for these
Furthermore, one needs to consider transitions at frequencies in which the free carrier transition will be lower than at 1.5 eV because the bands are not parallel, however, the absorption rate is
properties are also important. still significant, and accounts for the reduction of the reflectivity predicted by the Drude model..
Aluminium
Copper
10 1
[Ar]3d 4s ,
The wide outer 4s band (1),
Approximately free2 electron
2 states
Dispersion : E = h k /2m0;
The narrow 3d band (10)
More tightly bound
Relatively dispersionless
The Fermi energy lies in the middle of the 4s band above the
3d band
A well-defined threshold for interband transitions from the 3d
to the 4s.
Band diagram of Al at the W and K points that are responsible for the reflectivity dip at
1.5 eV are labelled
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
7.3.2 Interband transitions in metals
90
Copper
The 3d electrons lie in relatively bands with very high densities of states, while the 4s are much broader with a low density of
states. The Fermi energy lies in the middle of the 4s band above the 3d band. Interband transition are possible from the 3d b and
below EF. The lowest energy transitions are marked on the band diagram. The transition energy is 2.2 eV which corresponds to a
wavelength of 560 nm.
The measured reflectivity of copper. Based on the plasma frequency, one would expect near-100% reflectivity for photon energies
below 10.8 eV (115nm). However, the experimental reflectivity falls off sharply above 2 eV due to the interband absorption ed ge.
The explain why copper has a reddish colour.
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
91
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
95
Arnold Sommerfeld
(1868-1951)
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: why are metals
shiny?
Drude’s theory gives an explanation of why
metals do not transmit light and rather reflect
it.
96
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Some relations from basic
optics
plane wave
Maxwell relation
function
time-dependent field
we write
and get
to get
so the final
result is
is called
the plasma frequency
99
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Meaning of the plasma
the dielectric function in the Drude model is
frequency
with
remember
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
plasma frequency: simple
interpretation
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
the Wiedemann-Franz law
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
102
The Wiedemann Franz law
estimated thermal conductivity
(from a classical ideal gas)
metal 10-8Watt Ω K -2
Ag 2.31
Au 2.35
Cd 2.42
Cu 2.23
Mo 2.61
Pb 2.47
Pt 2.51
Sn 2.52
W 3.04
Zn 2.31
-8 -2
L = 2.45 10 Watt Ω K
104
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Failures of the Drude model
Despite of this and many other correct
predictions, there are some serious problems
with the Drude model.
105
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical
conductivity
line
106
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Failures of the Drude model:
he mean free path
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/319/5867/1226/FIG1
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Failures of the Drude model:
electrical conductivity of an alloy
• The resistivity of an alloy should be between those of its components, or at least similar to them.
108
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Failures of the Drude model:
consider the classical energy for one mole of solid in a heat bath: each degree of freedom contributes with
heat capacity
energy heat capacity
monovalent
divalent
trivalent
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Electrical properties of metals:
Classical approach (Drude theory)
112
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Some relations from basic
optics
plane wave
Maxwell relation
function
time-dependent field
we write
and get
to get
so the final
result is
is called
the plasma frequency
115
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
11
6
The free electron theory of metals
The Drude theory of metals
Paul Drude (1900): theory of electrical and thermal conduction in a metal
application of the kinetic theory of gases to a metal,
which is considered as a gas of electrons
mobile negatively charged electrons are confined in a metal by attraction
to immobile positively charged ions
isolated atom
in a metal
nucleus charge eZa
Z valence electronsare weakly bound to the nucleus (participate in chemical reactions)
Za – Z core electronsare tightly bound to the nucleus (play much less of a role in chemical reactions)
in a metal – the core electronsremain bound to the nucleus to form the metallic ion
the valence electrons wander far away from their parent atoms
called conduction electrons or electrons
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
11
7
Doping of Semiconductors
C, Si, Ge, are valence IV , Diamond fcc structure. Valence band is full
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
11
8
4. after each collision an electron emerges with a velocity that is randomly directed and
with a speed appropriate to the local temperature
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
11
9
DC electrical conductivity of a metal
V = RI Ohm’s low
the Drude model provides an estimate for the resistance
introduce characteristics of the metal which are independent on the shape of the wire
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
12
0
motion under the influence of the force f(t) due to spatially uniform
electric and/or magnetic fields
average average
momentum velocity
equation of motion
for the momentum per electron
electron collisions introduce a frictional damping term for the momentum per electron
Derivation:
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
1. The Drude Model
A. Assumptions
1) Free Electron Model
2) Independent Electron Model
3) Relaxation Time Approximation
- Equation of motion
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Electrical properties of metals:
Classical approach (Drude theory)
122
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude’s
Theory by classical
Paul Drude intheory
1900, only
three years after the electron was
discovered.
Drude treated the (free) electrons as a
classical ideal gas but the electrons
should collide with the stationary ions, average rms speed
so at room temp.
123
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude’s classical theory
relaxation time
124
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
onduction electron Density n
#atoms
per
volume
calculate as
#valence
electrons
density atomic
per atom
mass
125
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
...this must surely be wrong....
The electrons should strongly interact with
each other. Why don’t they?
The electrons should strongly interact with
the lattice ions. Why don’t they?
Using classical statistics for the electrons
cannot be right. This is easy to see:
condition for using classical statistics
is some Å
for RT
126
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
but:
In a theory which gives results like this, there must certainly be a great deal of truth.
127
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical
conductivity we apply an electric field. The equation of motion is
integration gives
and if is the average time between collisions then the average drift speed is
for we get
128 remember:
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical
conductivity
number of electrons passing in unit time
current density
Ohm’s law
129
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical
conductivity Ohm’s law
define
ivity
130
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Ohm’s law
131
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Electrical conductivity of materials
132
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
133
line
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
Drude theory: electrical
conductivity
Drude’s theory gives a reasonable picture for
the phenomenon of resistance.
Drude’s theory gives qualitatively Ohm’s law
(linear relation between electric field and
current density).
It also gives reasonable quantitative values,
at least at room temperature.
136
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory
To explain the high conductivities and the trend we need to have a model for both thermal and electrical conductivity, that m odel should be able to explain
137
Ohm’s law, empirical for many metals and insulators, ohmic solids
U ρl
R = / I for a wire R = / A
2
J: current density A/m
-1 -1
σ: electrical conductivity Ω m , reciprocal value of electrical resistivity
E: electric field V/m
Also definition of σ: a single constant that does depend on the material and temperature but not on
applied electric field represents connection between I and U
P.Ravindran, PHY075- Condensed Matter Physics, Spring 2013 : Drude-Lorenz Free Electron Theory