Surface Tensison

buffer capacity
• The buffer capacity is the amount of acid or base that can be added
to a given volume of a buffer solution before the pH changes
significantly, usually by one unit.
Preparing a Buffer Solution
• There are a couple of ways to prepare a buffer solution of a specific

pH. In the first method, prepare a solution with an acid and its
conjugate base by dissolving the acid form of the buffer in about 60%
of the volume of water required to obtain the final solution volume.
Then, measure the pH of the solution using a pH probe. The pH can
be adjusted up to the desired value using a strong base like NaOH. If
the buffer is made with a base and its conjugate acid, the pH can be
adjusted using a strong acid like HCl. Once the pH is correct, dilute the
solution to the final desired volume.
Preparing a Buffer Solution
• Alternatively, you can prepare solutions of both the acid form and
base form of the solution. Both solutions must contain the same
buffer concentration as the concentration of the buffer in the final
solution. To get the final buffer, add one solution to the other while
monitoring the pH.
Surface tension
• Surface tension is the tendency of fluid surfaces to shrink into the
minimum surface area possible. Surface tension could be defined as
the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
• Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser
than water, to float and slide on a water surface.
Surface tension
• The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the
phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each
molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid
molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the
surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and
therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and
forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Surface tension
• At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater
attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to
the molecules in the air (due to adhesion). The net effect is an inward
force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface
were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface
comes under tension from the imbalanced forces, which is probably
where the term "surface tension" came from. Because of the
relatively high attraction of water molecules to each other through a
web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension (72.8
millinewtons per meter at 20 °C) than most other liquids.
• Surface tension is related to attractive forces
between molecules .
• Liquid with large attractive forces have large
surface tension.
• The large surface tension is due to extensive
hydrogen bonding .
Methods of measurement
• Stalagmometric methoH
• Drop volume method
• Bubble pressure method
Viscosity
• Viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or
movement of neighboring portions relative to one
another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow. The reciprocal of
the viscosity is called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow.
• Viscosity of often referred to as the thickness of a fluid. You can think
of water (low viscosity) and honey (high viscosity). At a molecular
level, viscosity is a result the interaction between the different
molecules in a fluid. This can be also understood as friction between
the molecules in the fluid. Just like in the case of friction between
moving solids, viscosity will determine the energy required to make a
fluid flow.
Factors affecting viscosity
• Temperature
• Adhesive forces
• Size of molecules
Methods of measurement
• Viscosity is measured with various types

of viscometers and rheometers.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through
a selectively permeable membrane into a region of
higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute
concentrations on the two sides. It may also be used to describe a physical
process in which any solvent moves across a selectively permeable
membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two
solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can be made to do
work. Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be
applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic
pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its
identity.
• Osmotic Pressure Definition
• Osmotic pressure can be thought of as the pressure that would be
required to stop water from diffusing through a barrier by osmosis. In
other words, it refers to how hard the water would “push” to get
through the barrier in order to diffuse to the other side.
• Osmotic pressure is determined by solute concentration – water will
“try harder” to diffuse into an area with a high concentration of a
solute, such as a salt, than into an area with a low concentration.

Surface Tensison

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buffer capacity

• There are a couple of ways to prepare a buffer solution of a specific

• Viscosity is measured with various types

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