Basic Surface Flow

University of Southeastern Philippines
College of Engineering
BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW

COLLEGE OF GOVERNANCE AND BUSINESS
DARCY’S LAW
WHO WAS DARCY?
• Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy was born June 10, 1803 in
Dijon, France.
• Admitted to the French School of Bridges and Roads in Paris,
part of the Corps of Bridges and Roads. After graduation, he was
eventually assigned by the Corps to a position in Dijon.
• In 1828, Darcy designed a 12.7 km system of aqueducts to
supply the city of Dijon with surface water. The system included
28,000 m of pressurized surface lines and required no pumps or
filters.

• Made important contributions to flow and friction loss in pipes,
created an improved pitot tube design, and was the first to
postulate the existence of a boundary layer in fluid flow.
• In 1856, carried out experiments while researching sand filters
that lead to Darcy’s Law.

DARCY’S LAW
The law of flow of water through soil was first studied by Darcy
in 1856.
The Darcy’s law is,
• “For laminar flow through saturated soil mass, the discharge

per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient”.

Equation
Q=KA(h1-h2)/L
where,
Q is Flow rate
A is area
h1,h2 are groundwater heads
K is the hydraulic conductivity
L is distance between groundwater heads.

ASSUMPTIONS OF DARCY’S LAW
The following assumptions are made in Darcy’s law:

• The soil is saturated.
• The flow through soil is laminar.
• The flow is continuous and steady.
• The total cross sectional area of soil mass is considered.
• The temperature at the time of testing is 270C.

VALIDITY OF DARCY’S LAW
1. Darcy’s law is valid if the flow through soils is laminar :
• The flow of water through soils depends upon the dimension
of particles. In fine grained soils the dimensions of the interstices
(voids) are very small and flow is necessarily laminar.
• In course- grained soil, the flow is also laminar. However, in
very coarse grained soils, such as gravels, the flow may be
turbulent.
2.As per Allen Hazen, the maximum diameter of the particle for
the flow to be laminar is about 0.50 mm.

3. It is valid for flow in clays, slits and fine sands. In coarse sands,
gravels and boulders, the flow may be turbulent and Darcy’s law
may not be applicable.
4. For Darcy’s law to be valid, the relationship between velocity
(v) and hydraulic gradient(i) should be linear.
5. In extremely fine-grained soils, such as colloidal clay, the
interstices are very small.

Confined Aquifer

Confined Aquifer
is a water-bearing stratum
that is confined or overlain
by a rock layer that does
not transmit water in any
appreciable amount or
that is impermeable.

Confined Aquifer
water travels between the non-porous
rock layers:
gravel
sandstone
granite

Example of Darcy’s Law
A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.
K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and n is
0.2.The piezometric head in two wells 1000
m apart is 55 m and 50 m respectively, from
a common datum. The average thickness of
the aquifer is 30 m, and the average width of
aquifer is 5 km.

Compute:
a) the rate of flow through the aquifer
(b) the average time of travel from the head of the aquifer
to a point 4 km downstream
*assume no dispersion or diffusion

Solution
Cross-Sectional area
30(5)(1000) = 15 x 104 m2
Hydraulic gradient
(55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day
Q = (50 m/day) (75 x 101 m2) = 37,500 m3/day
Darcy Velocity:
V = Q/A = (37,500m3/day) / (15 x 104 m2) = 0.25m/day

And
Seepage Velocity:
Vs = V/n = (0.25)/(0.2)
=1.25 m/day (about 4.1 ft/day)
Time to travel 4 km downstream:
T = 4(1000m)/(1.25m/day)
=3200 days or 8.77 years
This example shows that water moves very
slowly underground.

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

- Are those into which water seeps from the ground surface
directly above the aquifer.
- Where the groundwater is in direct contact with the

atmosphere through the open spaces of the overlying soil or rock
- A groundwater aquifer.

Example :
An unconfined aquifer has a hydraulic conductivity of 0.0020 cm/sec and an effective porosity 0.27. the
aquifer is in a bed of sand with a uniform thickness of 31 liters, as measured from the lateral surface. At
well 1, the water table is 21 m below the land surface. At well 2 located some 175 m away, the water
table is 23.5 m from the surface. What is the (a) Discharge per unit width. (b) Average linear velocity at
well 1. (b) The water table elevation midway between the two wells.
SOLUTION: (a)
ℎ12 −ℎ22
K= 0.0020 cm/sec = 1.7 m/day Q= k( )
2𝐿
102 −7.52
n=0.27 Q= 1.7 ( )
2 (175)
H1= 31-21=10 m Q= 0.21 m^2/day m per unit width
H2=31-23.5= 7.5 m
L=175 m

𝑄 = 0.21𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(b) V = =
0.78 m/day
𝑛h1 0.21(10𝑚)
ho2 + (hL2 − ho2) (x/L)

=
(c) hx
102 + (7.52 − 102) (87.5/175)

=
=
8.8 m

Groundwater Flow in Confined Aquifer

Key terms:
• Groundwater is the water in the saturated zone

• An aquifer is a saturated geological formation that contains and transmits
"significant" quantities of water under normal field conditions (gravel, sand,
volcanic and igneous rocks, limestone)
• An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from
one aquifer to another(layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic
conductivity, allows no water to flow through)
• An aquiclude or aquifuge is completely impermeable aquitard.

GROUNDWATER FLOW DIAGRAM

Confined aquifer lies between an aquitard and aquiclude

Groundwater in a confined aquifer is under pressure and will rise up
inside a borehole drilled into the aquifer.

Horizontal Flow Approximation
• Flow in aquifers is essentially horizontal.

• Instead of considering flow as three-dimensional, with
we may treat the problem in terms of an average head,
ℎ = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
ℎത = ℎ(𝑥,
ത 𝑦, 𝑡)
• Where the average is taken along a vertical line extending from the
bottom to the top of the aquifer

27
Aquifer Transmissivity
Transmissivity (m2/s) is the rate of flow under a unit
hydraulic gradient through a unit width of aquifer of given
saturated thickness. The transmissivity of an aquifer is
related to its hydraulic conductivity as follows:
Hydraulic
gradient = 1 m/m
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑏
Transmissivity, T, volume
Where: of water flowing an area 1
1m
m x b under hydraulic b
K= Hydraulic conductivity(m/s) gradient of 1 m/m 1m
b= thickness of the aquifer(m)

1m
Conductivity, K, volume of water

flowing an area 1 m x 1 m under
hydraulic gradient of 1 m/m

28
Aquifer Storativity
Storativity (dimensionless) is defined as the volume of water

released from storage per unit surface area of the aquifer or
aquitard per unit decline in hydraulic head. Storativity is also
known by the terms coefficient of storage and storage coefficient.
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑠 𝑏
Where:
𝑆𝑠 = specific storage(m-1)
b = thickness of the
aquifer(m)

SPECIFIC STORAGE (𝑆𝑠 )
• Specific Storage(m-1)is the volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases
from storage under a unit decline in head. Specific storage is related to the
compressibility of water and the aquifer as follows:
Ss=ρg(α+neβ)
where:
ρ=mass density of water (kg/m )3
g=gravitational acceleration (= 9.8 m/sec )

2
α=aquifer (or aquitard) compressibility (m2/N)

ne=effective porosity [dimensionless]
β=compressibility of water (= 4.4×10 m2/N or Pa )
-10 -1

The typical storativity of a confined aquifer, which varies with specific
storage and aquifer thickness, ranges from 5×10-5 to 5×10-3 (Todd 1980).

Steady Flow in Confined Aquifers
• If there is a steady movement of groundwater in a confined aquifer, there

will be a linear gradient or slope to the piezometric surface; i.e., its two-
directional projection is a straight line. For this type of groundwater flow,
Darcy’s law can be directly applied.
Where:
K = mean hydraulic conductivity of the confined aquifer
b = thickness of the confined aquifer
dh/dx = hydraulic gradient in the X-direction.

Steady flow through a confined aquifer of uniform thickness

HYDRAULIC HEAD
• The hydraulic head h(x) at some intermediate distance, x between piezometer 1 having
hydraulic head h1 and piezometer 2 having a hydraulic head of h2. This can be determined
by the following equation:
Where:
h(x) = hydraulic head at distance x
h1 = hydraulic head in piezometer 1
q = groundwater flow
K = hydraulic conductivity
b = thickness of the aquifer
x = distance from Piezometer 1

Average linear velocity of groundwater
Where:
ne = effective porosity
K = hydraulic conductivity
Δh = Difference in piezometric levels
ΔL = Distance between the observation wells

Problem 3
A confined aquifer is 3.0 m thick. The piezometric level drops 0.15 m between two
observation wells which are located 238 m apart. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is
6.5 m/day and the effective porosity is 0.15. Determine the following: (a) Discharge of
groundwater through a strip of the aquifer having 10 m width, and (b) Average linear velocity
of groundwater.
Given:
Thickness of aquifer, b = 3.0 m
Difference in piezometric levels, Δh = 0.15 m
Distance between the observation wells, ΔL = 238 m
Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, K = 6.5 m/day
Effective porosity, ne = 0.15
Width of the aquifer strip, W = 10 m

(a) Groundwater discharge per unit width of the confined aquifer (q) is
given as:
Groundwater discharge through the 10 m aquifer strip

= W × q = 10 × 0.012
= 0.12 m3/day, Ans.

• (b) Average linear velocity of groundwater
= 0.027 m/day , Ans

Groundwater Flow in Unconfined Aquifer

Steady Unconfined Flow without
Recharge or Evapotranspiration

Discharge:
Dupuit’s Equation

q= discharge
L= flow length
h1= head at the origin (at
x=0)
h2= head at a distance L
h(x)= hydraulic head

Steady Unconfined Flow with Recharge
or Evapotranspiration

Hydraulic Head: Discharge:
q(x)= discharge
h(x)= hydraulic head (water table height from the aquifer base) at a
distance x
x= distance from the origin
L= distance from the origin to the point where h2 is measured
h1= head t the origin
h2= head at the distance L
K= mean hydraulic conductivity of the unconfined aquifer
R= recharge rate

RADIAL GROUNDWATER FLOW IN
CONFINED AQUIFERS

What is Confined Aquifer?
• A confined aquifer is an aquifer bound between two aquitards (a formation of low-

permeability materials), and whose groundwater is under pressure greater than
atmospheric.

(2𝜋)(𝑇)(ℎ𝑟 − ℎ𝑤 )
𝑄= 𝑟
ln(𝑟 )
𝑤
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑏
Q- rate of which water is extracted from the well

K- hydraulic conductivity
hr - height from the drawdown curve to the bottom impermeable layer of the
observation wells.
r – distance of the observation wells from the pumping well
sr – drawdown at given distance r
NOTE: -You can substitute (ℎ𝑟 − ℎ𝑤 ) into (𝑠𝑤 − 𝑠𝑟 )

-To get the radius of influence (R), just replace r2 with R
and h2 with original height of water table (H)

Radial Ground Water Flow in Unconfined
Aquifer

Radial Ground Water Flow in Unconfined
Aquifer
• In unconfined aquifers, pumping will result in the drawdown of
the water table.

Conditions
• The unconfined aquifer is homogenous and isotropic
• Flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere in the vertical
section
• Coefficient of transmissibility is constant at all places and at
all times.
• The pumping rate (Q) of the aquifer is constant
• Flow is laminar
• The well is fully penetrated into the aquifer and hydraulic
head in the aquifer prior to pumping is uniform throughout
the aquifer.

Q- rate of which water is extracted from the well
K- hydraulic conductivity
h1 and h2 - height from the drawdown curve to the bottom impermeable layer of
the observation wells.
r1 and r2 – distance of the observation wells from the pumping well
Note: To get the radius of influence (R), just replace r2 with R and h2 with
original height of water table (H)

Example 1
A pumping well in an unconfined aquifer has a rate is discharge
of 300 cubic meter per hour. Two observation wells with
distances of 50m and 100m from the pumping well have water
level height from the bedrock of 40 m and 43 m respectively.
Find the hydraulic conductivity.
Given:
Q= 300 cubic meter/hour
r1= 50m h1= 40m
r2= 100m h2= 43m
Ans. .266m/hour

Example 2
An unconfined aquifer has thickness of 30 cm. A fully penetrating
20 cm diameter well in this aquifer is pumped at 35 liters per
second. The drawdown measured in the two observation wells
are located at 10 m and 100 m from the well are 7.5 m and .5
m respectively. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the
aquifer. At what distance from the well will the drawdown be
insignificant.
Ans. Q= 7.05 x 10^-5

m/day
R= 120.61 m

Example 3
Determine the yield from a 30 cm diameter well with drawdown of
10 m in the well, radius of influence 150 m and hydraulic
conductivity of 5m/day. The aquifer is unconfined with thickness
of 60 m. If all other conditions remains the same, what is the
percent change in yield when,
a. the diameter of well is increased to 45 cm
b. the drawdown is limited to 6 m
c. The permeability of the aquifer is 12.5m/day
Ans. a. +6.2 %
b. -37.82%
c. +150%

Travel Time of Ground Water in Confined Aquifer

T= Distance Travelled/Vs
Where,
• T - Travel time
• Vs - Seepage Velocity

Example 1
Q = KA (dh/dL)
The hydraulic conductivity
K is a velocity, length / time
and n = Vol voids/ Vol total

• A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.
• K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and porosity n is 0.2.
• The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m
respectively, from a common datum.
• The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and the average width of
the aquifer is 5 km = 5000m.
A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the piezometric head of
groundwater in aquifers.
Piezometric head is measured as a water surface elevation, expressed in units of length.

Q = KA (dh/dL)
Example 1 Compute:
• a) the rate of flow through the aquifer
• (b) the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km downstream

Q = KA (dh/dL)
Example 1 Solution
• Cross-Sectional area= 30(5000) = 1.5 x 105 m2

• Hydraulic gradient dh/dL= (55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
• Find Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day
5
Q = (50 m/day) (1.5 x 10 m2) ( 5 x 10-3)
Q = 37,500 m3/day
• Darcy Velocity: VD = Q/A
• = (37,500m3/day) / (1.5 x 105 m2) = 0.25m/day

And • Seepage Velocity:
Vs = VD/n = (0.25) / (0.2) =
1.25 m/day (about 4.1 ft/day)
• Time to travel 4 km downstream: T

T = Distance Travelled/Vs
T = (4000m) / (1.25m/day) =
3200 days or 8.77 years
• This example shows that water moves

very slowly underground.
Lesson: Groundwater moves very slowly

Example 2
• A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft apart.
• The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft . The channel is at an elevation of 110ft.
• A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with hydraulic conductivity K of 0.25 ft/hr joins them, n=0.25
• Determine the flow rate Q of seepage from the river to the channel, Darcy Velocity, Seepage Velocity and
Time Travelled from head of aquifer to 5-ft downstream.
Confining Layer Aquifer
30 ft

Example 2: Confined Aquifer
• Consider 1-ft (i.e. unit) lengths of the river and
small channel. Q = KA [(h1 – h2) / L]
• Where:
A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2
K = (0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day
• Therefore,
Q = [6ft/day (30ft2) (120 – 110ft)] / 2000ft
Q = 0.9 ft3/day for each 1-foot length
• Darcy Velocity : VD= Q/A
VD = 0.9 ft3/day / 30 ft2
VD = 0.03 ft/day
• Seepage Velocity: Vs = VD/n

Vs = (0.03ft/day) / (0.25)
Vs = 0.12 ft/day
• Time to travel 5 ft downstream:

T = (5 ft) / (0.12ft/day)
T = 42 days

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University of Southeastern Philippines

BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

• “For laminar flow through saturated soil mass, the discharge

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

The following assumptions are made in Darcy’s law:

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

- Where the groundwater is in direct contact with the

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

ho2 + (hL2 − ho2) (x/L)

102 + (7.52 − 102) (87.5/175)

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

• Groundwater is the water in the saturated zone

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

• Flow in aquifers is essentially horizontal.

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b= thickness of the aquifer(m)

Conductivity, K, volume of water

University of Southeastern Philippines

Storativity (dimensionless) is defined as the volume of water

University of Southeastern Philippines

g=gravitational acceleration (= 9.8 m/sec )

α=aquifer (or aquitard) compressibility (m2/N)

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

• If there is a steady movement of groundwater in a confined aquifer, there

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

Groundwater discharge through the 10 m aquifer strip

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= 0.027 m/day , Ans

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines

University of Southeastern Philippines