Per-Unit System

Per-Unit System
In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents,
powers, impedances, and other electrical
quantities are expressed on a per-unit basis by
the equation:

Actual value
Quantity per unit =
Base value of quantity

It is customary to select two base quantities to

define a given per-unit system. The ones usually
selected are voltage and apparent power, S.
2
Per-Unit System
Assume:

Vb  Vrated
Sb  S rated
Then compute base values for currents and
impedances:
2
Sb Vb V
Ib  Zb   b
Vb Ib Sb
3
Per-Unit System
The per-unit system (for a single-phase system)
is:
Vactual I actual
V p .u .  I p.u . 
Vb Ib

S actual Z actual
S p.u .  Z p.u . 
Sb Zb

Z %  Z p.u . 100% Percent of base Z

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Example 1
An electrical lamp is rated 120 volts, 500 watts.
Compute the per-unit and percent impedance of
the lamp. Give the p.u. equivalent circuit.

Solution:
(1) Compute lamp resistance
V2 V2
(120) 2
P R   28.8 
R P 500

power factor = 1.0 Z  28.80 

o

5
Example 1 Continued
(2) Select base quantities
Sb  500 VA
Vb  120 V

(3) Compute base impedance

Vb2 (120) 2
Zb    28.8 
Sb 500
(4) The per-unit impedance is:
Z 28.80 o
Zp.u.    10o p.u.
Zb 28.8 6
Example 1 Continued
(5) Percent impedance:
Z %  100%
(6) Per-unit equivalent circuit:

VS  10 p.u.
o Z  10o p.u.

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Example 2
An electrical lamp is rated 120 volts, 500 watts. If
the voltage applied across the lamp is twice the
rated value, compute the current that flows
through the lamp. Use the per-unit method.

Solution:
Vb  120 V
V 240
Vp.u.    20 p.u.
o

Vb 120
Zp.u.  10 p.u.
o

8
Example 2 Continued
The per-unit equivalent circuit is as follows:

VS  20 p.u. o Z  10 p.u.

o

Vp.u. 20
I p.u.    20o p.u.
Z p.u. 10
Sb 500
Ib    4.167 A
Vb 120
Iactual  Ip.u. I b  20  4.167  8.3340 A
o o
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Transformation Between Bases
Selection 1
Sb1  S A Vb1  VA
Then
Vb21 ZL
Z b1  Z pu1 
S b1 Z b1
Selection 2
Sb 2  S B Vb 2  VB
Then 2
V ZL
Zb2  b2
Z pu 2 
Sb 2 Zb2
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Transformation Between Bases
2
Z pu 2 Z L Z b1 Z b1 V Sb 2
     2 b1
Z pu1 Z b 2 Z L Z b 2 Sb1 Vb 2
2
 Vb1   Sb 2 
Z pu 2  Z pu1     
 Vb 2   Sb1 
“1” – old
“2” - new 2
 Vb,old   Sb,new 
Z pu,new  Z pu,old   
 S


V
 b,new   b,old 
When performing calculations in a power system, every
per-unit value must be converted to the same base.
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Per-unit System for 1- Transformer
Consider the equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to LV side and HV side shown below:

R p  jX p R p  jX p  a 2

VLV VHV VLV VHV

VHV N 2
N1 N2 Define a  1
S VLV N1

(1) Referred to LV side (2) Referred to HV side

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Per-unit System for 1- Transformer
Choose:
Vb1  VLV ,rated Choose rated values
as base values
Sb  S rated
Compute: VHV
Vb 2  Vb1  a Vb1
VLV
Vb21 Vb22
Z b1  Zb2 
Sb Sb

Z b1 Vb21 Vb21 1
 2  2
 2
Z b 2 Vb 2 (a Vb1 ) a 13
Per-Unit System for 1- Transformer
Per-unit impedances are:
R p  jX p
Z p.u.1 
Z b1

Z p.u .2 
R p  jX p  a 2


R p  jX p  a 2


R p  jX p
2
Zb2 a Z b1 Z b1

Per-unit equivalent

Z p.u .1  Z p.u .2
circuits of transformer
So:
referred to LV side and
HV side are identical !!
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Example 3 Transformers Per Unit
A transformer is rated 2000 VA, 200V/400V, and has
an internal impedance of j4.0  as seen from the low
voltage side.
Solution:
Zs = j4.0 x (400/200)2 = j 16Ω
Low-Voltage Side: High-Voltage Side:
Sbase = 2000 VA Sbase = 2000 VA
Vbase = 200 V Vbase = 400 V
Ibase = Sbase / Vbase = 10 A Ibase = 5 A
Zbase = Vbase / Ibase = 20 Ω Zbase = 80 Ω

Zpu, LV = ZLV / Zbase = j 4/20 = j 0.2 pu

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Zpu, HV = ZHV / Zbase = j 16/80 = j 0.2 pu
Per-unit System for 3- Circuits
Three-phase balanced circuits will be treated as 3
equivalent single-phase circuits. Analysis is
performed on one circuit. Consider that:
•Given voltages, in three-phase systems, are RMS and
line-to-line values.
•Given currents are RMS and line currents.
•Given power (P, S or Q) is for total 3 circuits.
•Impedance is always in per phase basis.

S3  3V I   1
S b  S 3
3
Vb  V 1    VL  L / 3 (Y  cct.)
Vb  V 1    VL  L(  cct.) 16
Example 4: Per-Unit System for a 3-
Transformer
A three-phase 25-kVA, 34500/277-V transformer is
connected in -Y. Its equivalent series impedance
referred to the high-voltage side is 191.48 + j
900.86 Ω (ignoring shunt branch).

Determine the per-unit equivalent circuit of the

transformer.

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Per-unit System for 3- Transformer
So Z  191.48  j900.86 
1
Sb  25000 VA  8333.3 VA
3
Vb, HV  34500 V (  coonection)

Sb 8333.3
I b, HV    0.242 A
Vb, HV 34500
Vb , HV 34500
Z b , HV    142562 
I b , HV 0.242

191.48  j 900.86
Z pu,    0.0013  j 0.0063 pu
142562
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 One-Line (Single-Line) Diagrams
Almost all modern power systems are three-phase systems with the phases of equal
amplitude and shifted by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary to sketch
power systems in a simple form with a single line representing all three phases of
the real system.

Combined with a standard set

of symbols for electrical
components, such one-line
diagrams provide a compact
way to represent information.
 One-Line (Single-Line) Diagrams Continued

Example 5: A power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two
busses, two transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together.

All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the diagram
indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer, and also the
points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing in
nonsymmetrical faults. These connection can be direct or through a resistor or
inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in unsymmetrical faults,
while having no impact on the steady-state operation of the system since the current
through them will be zero). Machine ratings, impedances, and/or consumed (or
supplied) powers are usually included in the diagrams.
 One-Line (Single-Line) Diagrams Continued

Another single-line diagram of a power network: The

circuit breakers are shown by ‘X’.
•For the purpose of analysis a single-line diagram is
converted into an ‘impedance’ or a‘reactance’ diagram.

M
 Impedance Diagram
•In power system fault calculations it is often that a single-line diagram representing
a typical power network in 3- be converted into its per phase impedance diagram.
• Some assumptions for converting from single-line diagram into its equivalent
impedance diagram needed to be considered:
(i) A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an
inductive reactance. The internal resistance of the generator is assumed to be
negligible compared to the reactance.
(ii) The loads are usually inductive represented by resistance and inductance.
(iii) The transformer core is assumed to be ideal, and the transformer may be
represented by a reactance only.
(iv) The transmission line is represented by its resistance and inductance, the
line-to-ground capacitance is assumed to be negligible.
Impedance Diagram Continued

Generator Station A Transformer Transmission Transformer Station B

G1 T1 Line T2 G3
TL

G2 G4

Load Load
L1 L2

Transmission
Transformer Line Transformer
T1 TL T2
Station A Station B
j XT1 RTL j XTL j XT2

j X1 j X2 RL1 RL2 j X3 j X4

G1 G2 j XL1 j XL2 G3 G4

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Example 6
Determine the per-unit values of the following single-
line diagram and draw the impedance diagram.
5 MVA 100 MVA 50 MVA
275 kV/132 kV Transmission line 132 kV/66 kV
Xg = 16%
j 3.48 

XT1 = 0.1 p.u XT2 = 0.04 p.u Load

40 MW, 0.8 p.f. lagging

Choose base: Choose largest rating for Sbase;

therefore, Sbase = 100 MVA.
Now Vbase is 275 kV, 132 kV and 66 kV: all line-line
(depending upon the sides of the transformers).
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Example 6 Continued
Generator :
100 MVA 275kV Sb, g
Sb, g  ; Vb , g  ; I b, g  ;
3 3 Vb , g
2
 275x103 
 
Vb , g Vb , g   3 
2

Z b, g     756.25 
I b, g Sb, g 100 x106
3
Calculate actual genetaor impedance from old per  unit value (0.16  16%) :
For this, we need first to calculate old base impedance of the generator (on 5 MVA and 275kV basis ).
Thus,
2
 275x103 
 
Z b , g ,old 
Vb , g ,old

Vb , g ,old 
2


3   15125 
6
I b , g ,old Sb , g ,old 5x10
3
Now,
Zg,actual  Zg,pu,old  Z b , g ,old  j 0.16 15125  j 2420 
2420
 Z g , pu  j  j 3.2 pu
756.25
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Example 6 Continued
Transformer T1: X T1 ( pu)  0.1 pu (why ?)
Transmissi on Line :
100MVA 132kV Sb ,TL
Sb ,TL  ; Vb ,TL  ; I b ,TL  ;
3 3 Vb ,TL
2
 132x103 
 
Vb ,TL Vb ,TL  
2
3 
Z b ,TL    6
 174.24 
I b ,TL Sb ,TL 100x10
3
Z TL, actual j 3.48
Z TL    j 0.02 pu
Z b ,TL 174.24

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Example 6 Continued
Transformer T 2 on 66 kV side ( why ?) :
100 MVA 66kV S
S b ,T 2  ; Vb ,T 2  ; I b ,T 2  b ,T 2 ;
3 3 Vb ,T 2
2
 166 x103 
 
V V  2

Z b ,T 2  b ,T 2  b ,T 2  
3 
 43.56 
I b ,T 2 S b ,T 2 100 x106
3
We need to calculate actual transformer T 2 impedance from old base (50 MVA, 66 kV ) :
2
 66 x103 
 
Z b ,T 2,old 
Vb ,T 2,old

Vb ,T 2 ,old 
2


3   87.12 
I b ,T 2,old Sb ,T 2,old 50 x106
3
Now,
ZT2, actual  ZT2, pu,old  Z b ,T 2,old  j 0.04  87.12  j 3.485 
3.485
 Z T2,pu  j  j 0.08 pu
43.56
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Example 6 Continued
Load :
40MW 66kV
P1 phase  ; Vb , Load  ;
3 3
Now,
40x106 66 x103
P1 p  V p I p cos    x 0.8xI p  I p  437.4 A
3 3
Now,
Load impedance is calculated as :
66 x103 0
Vp 3
Z Load    87. 1136.87 o

I p 437.4  36.87 o
Now,
87.1136.87 o
 Z Load,pu   236.87 o  1.6  j 1.2 pu
43.56
28
Example 6 Continued
Now, we have all the impedance values in per-unit with a common base and we
can now combine all the impedances and determine the overall impedance.
5 MVA 100 MVA 50 MVA
275 kV/132 kV Transmission line 132 kV/66 kV
Xg = 16%
j 3.48 

XT1 = 0.1 p.u XT2 = 0.04 p.u Load

40 MW, 0.8 p.f. lagging

Transformer Transmission Line Transformer

T1 TL T2

j 0.1 p.u. j 0.0195 p.u. j 0.08 p.u.

j 3.2 p.u. 1.6 p.u..

Generator Load

G j 1.2 p.u.

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Problem 1
j100 

20 kV 22kV/220 kV 220 kV/20 kV 50 MVA

80 MVA 50 MVA 0.8 PF
14% 10% lagging

Select Vbase in generator circuit and Sb=100 MVA,

compute p.u. equivalent circuit.

30