Chapter 11 (11-23-04)
Chapter 11 (11-23-04)
Chapter 11 (11-23-04)
1
Chapter 11
Process
Chapter 11
K K
X s 1 X1 s 2 W2 s (11-1)
τs 1 τs 1
where
Vρ w1 1 x
, K1 , and K2 (11-2)
w w w
3
Chapter 11
4
Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyzer)
We assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensor-
transmitter can be approximated by a first-order transfer function:
X m s Km
(11-3)
X s τm s 1
Chapter 11
Controller
Suppose that an electronic proportional plus integral controller is
used. From Chapter 8, the controller transfer function is
P s 1
Kc 1 (11-4)
E s τ I
s
E s X sp
s X m s (11-6)
Chapter 11
7
Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer
Because transducers are usually designed to have linear
characteristics and negligible (fast) dynamics, we assume that the
transducer transfer function merely consists of a steady-state gain
KIP:
Pt s
Chapter 11
K IP (11-9)
P s
Control Valve
As discussed in Section 9.2, control valves are usually designed so
that the flow rate through the valve is a nearly linear function of
the signal to the valve actuator. Therefore, a first-order transfer
function usually provides an adequate model for operation of an
installed valve in the vicinity of a nominal steady state. Thus, we
assume that the control valve can be modeled as
W2 s Kv
(11-10)
Pt s τv s 1 8
Figure 11.5 Block diagram for the I/P transducer.
Chapter 11
9
Chapter 11
10
Closed-Loop Transfer Functions
The block diagrams considered so far have been specifically
developed for the stirred-tank blending system. The more general
block diagram in Fig. 11.8 contains the standard notation:
Chapter 11
Y = controlled variable
U = manipulated variable
D = disturbance variable (also referred to as load
variable)
P = controller output
E = error signal
Ym = measured value of Y
Ysp = set point
Ysp internal set point (used by the controller)
11
Chapter 11
12
Yu = change in Y due to U
Yd = change in Y due to D
Gc = controller transfer function
Gv = transfer function for final control element
Chapter 11
13
Block Diagram Reduction
In deriving closed-loop transfer functions, it is often convenient to
combine several blocks into a single block. For example, consider
the three blocks in series in Fig. 11.10. The block diagram
indicates the following relations:
Chapter 11
X1 G1U
X 2 G2 X1 (11-11)
X 3 G3 X 2
By successive substitution,
X 3 G3G2G1U (11-12)
or
X 3 GU (11-13)
where G G3G2G1.
14
Figure 11.10 Three blocks in series.
Chapter 11
15
Set-Point Changes
Next we derive the closed-loop transfer function for set-point
changes. The closed-loop system behavior for set-point changes is
also referred to as the servomechanism (servo) problem in the
control literature.
Chapter 11
Y Yd Yu (11-14)
Yd Gd D 0 (because D 0) (11-15)
Yu G pU (11-16)
Combining gives
Y G pU (11-17)
16
Figure 11.8 also indicates the following input/output relations for
the individual blocks:
U Gv P (11-18)
P Gc E (11-19)
E Ysp Ym (11-20)
Chapter 11
Y G p Gv P G p GvGc E (11-23)
G p GvGc Ysp Ym (11-24)
17
Rearranging gives the desired closed-loop transfer function,
Y K mGcGvG p
(11-26)
Ysp 1 GcGvG pGm
Disturbance Changes
Chapter 11
Y Gd D G pU Gd D G pGvGc K mYsp GmY (11-28)
18
Because Ysp = 0 we can arrange (11-28) to give the closed-loop
transfer function for disturbance changes:
Y Gd
(11-29)
D 1 GcGvG p Gm
Chapter 11
20
General Expression for Feedback Control Systems
Closed-loop transfer functions for more complicated block
diagrams can be written in the general form:
Z f
Chapter 11
(11-31)
Zi 1 e
where:
Z is the output variable or any internal variable within the
control loop
Zi is an input variable (e.g., Ysp or D)
f = product of the transfer functions in the forward path from
Zi to Z
e = product of every transfer function in the feedback loop
21
Example 11.1
Find the closed-loop transfer function Y/Ysp for the complex
control system in Figure 11.12. Notice that this block diagram has
two feedback loops and two disturbance variables. This
configuration arises when the cascade control scheme of Chapter
Chapter 11
16 is employed.
23
Chapter 11
24
Solution
Using the general rule in (11-31), we first reduce the inner loop to
a single block as shown in Fig. 11.13. To solve the servo problem,
set D1 = D2 = 0. Because Fig. 11.13 contains a single feedback
loop, use (11-31) to obtain Fig. 11.14a. The final block diagram is
shown in Fig. 11.14b with Y/Ysp = Km1G5. Substitution for G4 and
Chapter 11
Y K m1Gc1Gc 2G1G2G3
Ysp 1 Gc 2G1Gm 2 Gc1G2G3Gm1Gc 2G1
adjusting volumetric flow rate q2. A second inlet flow rate q1 is the
disturbance variable. Assume:
27
Derivation of the process and disturbance transfer functions
directly follows Example 4.4. Consider the unsteady-state mass
balance for the tank contents:
dh
ρA ρq1 ρq2 ρq3 (11-32)
dt
Chapter 11
dh h
A q1 q2 (11-33)
dt R
Thus, we obtain the transfer functions
H s Kp
Gp s (11-34)
Q2 s τs 1
28
H s Kp
Gd s (11-35)
Q1 s τs 1
where Kp = R and τ = RA. Note that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are identical
because q1 and q2 are both inlet flow rates and thus have the same
effect on h.
Chapter 11
H s K c K v K p K m / τs 1
(11-36)
s 1 K c K v K p K m / τs 1
H sp
29
Chapter 11
30
This relation can be rearranged in the standard form for a first-
order transfer function,
H s K1
(11-37)
s τ1s 1
H sp
where:
Chapter 11
KOL
K1 (11-38)
1 KOL
τ
τ1 (11-39)
1 KOL
KOL K c K v K p K m (11-40)
31
From Eq. 11-37 it follows that the closed-loop response to a unit
step change of magnitude M in set point is given by
h t K1M 1 e t / τ1 (11-41)
offset h
hsp (11-42)
M
offset M K1M (11-43)
1 KOL
32
Chapter 11
33
Proportional Control and Disturbance Changes
From Fig. 11.16 and Eq. 11-29 the closed-loop transfer function
for disturbance changes with proportional control is
H s K p / τs 1
(11-53)
Q1 s 1 KOL / τs 1
Chapter 11
Rearranging gives
H s K2
(11-54)
Q1 s τ1s 1
where τ1 is defined in (11-39) and K2 is given by
Kp
K2 (11-55)
1 KOL
34
• A comparison of (11-54) and (11-37) indicates that both closed-
loop transfer functions are first-order and have the same time
constant.
• However, the steady-state gains, K1 and K2, are different.
• From Eq. 11-54 it follows that the closed-loop response to a
Chapter 11
h t K 2 M 1 e t / τ1 (11-56)
The offset can be determined from Eq. 11-56. Now hsp 0
since we are considering disturbance changes and h K 2 M
for a step change of magnitude M.
Thus,
K pM
offset 0 h K 2 M (11-57)
1 KOL
35
Chapter 11
36
Chapter 11
37
PI Control and Disturbance Changes
For PI control, Gc s K c 1 1/ τ I s . The closed-loop transfer
function for disturbance changes can then be derived from Fig.
11.16:
H s K p / τs 1
(11-58)
Chapter 11
Q1 s 1 KOL 1 1/ τ I s / τs 1
H s 1
Gd s (11-67)
Q1 s As
40
Chapter 11
41
If the level transmitter and control valve in Eq. 11.22 have
negligible dynamics, the Gm(s) = Km and Gv(s) = Kv. For PI
control, Gc s K c 1 1/ τ I s . Substituting these expressions
into the closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes
H s Gd
(11-68)
Q1 s 1 GcGvG pGm
Chapter 11
1
Gc K c Gv (11-73)
2s 1
1 1
G p Gd Gm (11-74)
5s 1 s 1
43
Chapter 11
44
Stability
• Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control.
Thus, they are said to be open-loop stable or self-regulating.
• An open-loop stable process will return to the original steady
state after a transient disturbance (one that is not sustained)
Chapter 11
occurs.
• By contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic
chemical reactors, that can be open-loop unstable.
45
Characteristic Equation
As a starting point for the stability analysis, consider the block
diagram in Fig. 11.8. Using block diagram algebra that was
developed earlier in this chapter, we obtain
K mGcGvG p Gd
Chapter 11
Y Ysp D (11-80)
1 GOL 1 GOL
46
Comparing Eqs. 11-81 and 11-82 indicates that the poles are also
the roots of the following equation, which is referred to as the
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
1 GOL 0 (11-83)
General Stability Criterion. The feedback control system in Fig.
Chapter 11
Example 11.8
Consider a process, Gp = 0.2/-s + 1), and thus is open-loop
unstable. If Gv = Gm = 1, determine whether a proportional
controller can stabilize the closed-loop system.
47
Figure 11.25
Stability regions
Chapter 11
in the complex
plane for roots
of the charact-
eristic equation.
48
Figure 11.26
Contributions of
Chapter 11
characteristic
equation roots to
closed-loop
response.
49
Solution
The characteristic equation for this system is
s 0.2 Kc 1 0 (11-92)
Which has the single root, s = -1 + 0.2Kc. Thus, the stability
Chapter 11
4 c1 c2
n+1 z1
where:
an1an2 an an3
b1 (11-94)
an1
an1an4 an an5
b2 (11-95)
an1
51
and:
b1an3 an1b2
c1 (11-96)
b1
b1an5 an1b3
Chapter 11
c2 (11-97)
b1
52
Example 11.9
Determine the stability of a system that has the characteristic
equation
s 4 5s3 3s 2 1 0 (11-98)
Chapter 11
Solution
Because the s term is missing, its coefficient is zero. Thus,
the system is unstable. Recall that a necessary condition for
stability is that all of the coefficients in the characteristic
equation must be positive.
53
Example 11.10
Find the values of controller gain Kc that make the feedback
control system of Eq. 11.4 stable.
Solution
Chapter 11
10s3 17 s 2 8s 1 Kc 0 (11-99)
All coefficients are positive provided that 1 + Kc > 0 or Kc < -1.
The Routh array is
10 8
17 1 + Kc
b1 b2
c1
54
To have a stable system, each element in the left column of the
Routh array must be positive. Element b1 will be positive if
Kc < 7.41/0.588 = 12.6. Similarly, c1 will be positive if Kc > -1.
Thus, we conclude that the system will be stable if
1 Kc 12.6 (11-100)
Chapter 11
Solution
Chapter 11
56
Equation 11-105 is satisfied if both the real and imaginary parts
are identically zero:
8ω 10ω3 ω 8 10ω2 0 (11-106b)
Chapter 11
Therefore,
ω2 0.8 ω 0.894 (11-107)
and from (11-106a),
Kcm 12.6
57
Root Locus Diagrams
Example 11.13
Consider a feedback control system that has the open-loop
transfer function,
Chapter 11
4 Kc
GOL s (11-108)
s 1 s 2 s 3
Plot the root locus diagram for 0 Kc 20.
Solution
The characteristic equation is 1 + GOL = 0 or
s 1 s 2 s 3 4 Kc 0 (11-109)
58
• The root locus diagram in Fig. 11.27 shows how the three roots
of this characteristic equation vary with Kc.
• When Kc = 0, the roots are merely the poles of the open-loop
transfer function, -1, -2, and -3.
Chapter 11
59
Chapter 11
61