Criteria of Good Research

Research Methods
 Research Process
• The research process is an outline/ description
of key activities or steps in research.
• The number of steps or key activities may vary
depending on what one (that is writer or
teacher) consider to be pertinent steps.
• While we have separated conceptualization of
the problem from designing and planning
phase, other writers may combine the two and
call it the proposal stage.
• Data processing and analysis can be
combined and given one name (i.e. data
analysis or analytical phase).
Phases/Stages of Research Process

• Conceptual Stage/Phase
• Design and Planning Phase/Proposal
Stage)
• Data Collection/Research stage
• Data Processing Phase/Stage
• Data Analysis Phase/Stage
• Reporting/Dissemination Phase/Stage
 Conceptual stage
• Involves identifying and stating the research
title / problem.
• Title should be identified/picked from ones’
area of interest. This area is related to one’s
professional interest and goals.
• The next step is to identify a specific problem
within the researcher’s area of interest.
• The problem should be important and serious
in that it needs a solution immediately. It is
from the problem that a researcher formulates
a research title. E.g of research problems are
workers productivity in the public sector;
student’s performance at university level;
 Characteristics of a good
research problem
• It must be directed towards a solution to a
problem.
• Covers a reasonable scope that is not too
narrow and not too general.
• It should be generating, adding or validating
existing body of knowledge.
• It must be stated clearly showing the problem
area.
• It must be researchable in terms of time, data,
money, etc.
 Conceptual ….

• Thus when selecting a research problem

put in mind the following;
• The time available to conduct the study.
• The money available /which can be raised for
the study.
• The availability of equipment and other tools
required for the study.
• Availability of subject or respondents for the
study.
Proposal Stage/Design and
Planning Phase;
• In this phase a proposal is developed and data
collection or research instruments is designed
among other activities.
• A research proposal is a plan for the proposed
research study and is written in a future tense
for example “The study will ……” and if it is
well prepared it carries up to 60% or more of
the research report.
 Data collection or research stage;
• The researcher collects data pertaining to the
study (that is primary and secondary data).
• Primary, first – hand or field data collection is
aiming at new data by contacting or observing
respondents or specimen right in the “field”.
• There are at least three methods of collecting
primary data, namely, observation, interview
and using survey/questionnaire.
• In addition to primary data collection some
researchers (especially qualitative researchers
for example those doing historical research)
use secondary, documentary or library data
collection which takes place at desk.
Data processing phase /stage;
• In this phase the data collected are
processed or prepared for analysis.
• That is, the data are edited or cleared of
obvious errors; they (the data) are
categorized and entered into the
computer for presenting or summarizing
them.
Data Analysis stage /phase;

• In this phase the processed data are

analyzed and interpreted.
• Data analysis can generally be classified
as qualitative and quantitative depending
on the preferred research approach.
•
Reporting & dissemination phase
• Here the research methodology (that is how
findings were arrived at) is summarized,
together with findings themselves and their
implications. (That is conclusion and pertinent
recommendations).
• Such reporting is for future use or reference
by the researcher and other interested parties
such as future researchers. While the term
research report is common to all research
findings; they (the findings) can take on
different names such as dissertation or thesis
in the case of students or conferences and
journal articles in the case of senior
researchers.
 Criteria of Good Research
One expects research to satisfy the following
criteria
• The purpose of the research should be
clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
• The research procedure used should be
described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement
• The procedural design of the research
should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible.
Cont …
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance the
analysis used should be appropriate.
• Conclusions should be confined to those
justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide
an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research it
warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
 Introduction to a Research Proposal
• Before getting to the empirical part of research,
a student is expected to first develop a
research proposal or guide, a document
summarizing the systematic process to be
followed in the study
• A research proposal is a plan for the proposed
research study and is written in a future tense
for example “The study will ……” and if it is
well prepared it carries up to 60% or more of
the research report.
 Functions/Purpose of a Proposal
• It helps the researcher or student to
communicate his / her study idea to potential
supervisors, funders and accepting agencies.
However much you will talk to these people,
without a written proposal they will not
appreciate your study idea.
• Secondly, the proposal will be your plan of
action; planners summarize the purpose of
planning in a philosophical saying that “one
who has no plan has planned to fail”.
 Functions/Objective of a Proposal

• Third, as you develop your proposal, you

are assessing the probability of your study
idea.
• Fourth, once complete your proposal will
serve as a guide, protocol or terms of
reference to be followed by you (the
researcher), your supervisors and the like.
• The first element in a proposal is the title
reflecting the independent variable, the
dependent variable and the context of the
study
Structure of a Research Proposal

• Regarding the structure of a research

proposal, that is the content and order,
there is yet to be a universally acceptable
format.
• However, in this course we shall consider
a research proposal as consisting of
three chapters that is Introduction,
Literature Review and Methodology, plus
the accompanying data collection
instrument(s) and preceding preliminary
pages
UoK Proposal Guide
• Preliminary Pages
– Cover Page
– Declaration
– Approval
– Dedication
– Acknowledgement
– Table of Contents
– List of Tables
– List of Figures
– Abbreviations and Acronyms
– Operational Definitions
– Abstract
Chapter One: General Introduction
• 1.0 Introduction
• 1.1 Background of the Study
• 1.2 Statement of the Problem
• 1.3 Objectives
• 1.3.1 General Objective
• 1.3.2 Specific Objectives

• 1.4 Research Questions

• 1.5 Scope of the Study
• 1.5.1 Geographical Scope
• 1.5.2 Content Scope
• 1.5.3 Theoretical Scope
• 1.5.4 Time Scope

• 1.6 Significance
Chapter Two: Literature Review
• 2.0 Introduction
• 2.1 Definition of Key terms and Concepts
• 2.2 Theoretical Review
• 2.3 Empirical Review
• 2.3.1 Objective 1
• 2.3.2 Objective 2
• 2.3.3 Objective 3
• 2.4 Critical Review
• 2.5 Research Gap
• 2.6 Conceptual Framework
Chapter Three: Research
Methodology
• 3.0 Introduction
• 3.1 Research Design
• 3.2 Study Population
• 3.3 Sample Design
• 3.3.1 Sample Size
• 3.3.2 Sampling Techniques

• 3.4 Data Collection Methods

• 3.4.1 Research Instrument
• 3.4.2 Validity and Reliability
• 3.4.3 Data Collection Procedure

• 3.5 Data Processing and Analysis

• 3.6 Ethical Consideration
• 3.7 Limitations of the Study
• Reference
• Appendices
• Appendix 1: Research Instrument
• Appendix 2: Time Frame
• Appendix 3: Budget( not used in our IT
environment).
 Background
• A background refers to those “things that
can be seen or heard behind other things
that are closer or louder (Cambridge
International Dictionary).
• In research there is a particular concern,
referred to as “the problem” making you to
think of a study. But behind that problem
there is a background to it. Which you will
be expected to give first.
• A background to a research problem has at
least four perspectives: Historical, Theoretical
and Conceptual perspectives
Historical Perspective
• The historical background brings to picture
the area or institution of study, the
population in question and its
characteristic and also trace the history of
the problem being investigated which is
usually on the D.V.
• In addition to narrating how the problem
came about historical attempts by other
researchers to deal with the same problem
that is to carry out studies with the same
D.V as yours should be given showing
gaps they left to justify your study
Theoretical Perspective

• In this part of the background, the

researcher is expected discuss theories
on the assumed relationship between the
I.V and D.V in the study.
• This can be done by invoking a formal
theory of relevance.
 Conceptual Perspective
• Here, the researcher conceptualizes or
defines the variables.
• In conceptualizing a given variable, you are
expected to begin with one or a few text
book or dictionary definition and then go
further to give an “operational definition” to
the variable, that is how the variable will be
understood in the study.
• Identifying and stating basic elements or
concepts that will constitute each variable.
 Problem Statement
• The researcher officially states “The problem”
that exists in the field s/he want to investigate
upon stressing the urgency to study “the
problem” with the view of understanding it more
and hence possibly suggest how to solve it
(usually on a page or less).
A good problem statement has the following
characteristics.
• It clearly shows the researchers interest. That
is, what s/he want to find out or solve.
• It must be specific, objective and researchable.
 Problem ….
• Must indicate the scope (coverage)
• Must give the purpose of the study.
• While there are many ways of stating “the
research problem” in a given study, it may
be presented as follows.
• Start by stressing the importance of the D.V
in the study; then lament “the problem on
the D.V in your study context giving its
empirical indicators.
• Suggest the negative consequences of “the
problem” and hence the need to solve it.
Problem statement cont……….

• Argue that one way to solve “the

problem” is to isolate its factors and point
out that your study is interested in
investigating the extent to which your I.V
could be one of the factors contributing to
“the problem” hence justifying your
proposed study relating to I.V and D.V in
your study context.
 Purpose/Objective
• This is also known as the general
objectives/aims/goal/main objective of the
study. It should state in concrete and
concise terms the reasons for the study.
• Here the researcher officially states the
general intentions of the proposed study,
which as per the study title is to co-relate
the I.V and D.V in the study context.
• If the purpose is accurately stated, the
research study will be easy to conduct, but
if it is poorly stated, the research will not
provide the required answers.
 Purpose/Objective …

• In stating the purpose of the study common

words used are: To determine; Compare,
Investigate; Differentiate; Explore; Find out;
Examine; Inquire; Predict; Describe; Control,
etc.
• However, the following words should be
avoided: to show; prove; confirm; verify;
check; indicate and to validate.
 Objectives
• This is the breakdown of the purpose/
general objective of the study into specific
activities that when executed will result into
achievement of the study purpose.
• The researcher will either use the “many
to-one” linking strategy where the I.V is
broken into many concepts but leaving the
D.V as one concept or the one-to- many
linking strategy where the I.V will be left
as one while breaking the D.V in many
concepts
• The more objectives a researcher states,
the wider his/her study will be.
Characteristics of specific
objectives
• Should be specific
• Should be measurable
• Reasonable
• Should be possible – in terms of
resources
• Help to measure the independent and
dependent variable(for social sciences)
 Research Questions
• Research questions are the specific objectives
turned into question form
• It has been argued by some researchers that
since research is expected to give answers to
questions.
• Note: The research questions should be
consistent (for example in terms of number
content /variable and context) with the
research objectives.
• They guide the researcher in data collection
that is the researcher collect data that will help
to answer the research questions
 Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is defined as a presumptive
statement of a proposition or a reasonable
guess based on available evidence that the
researcher intends to check
• E.g a hypothesis can be stated as; students
taught using lecture method learn
significantly more than those taught by
discussion method.
• Hypotheses are tentative answers to a
problem.
• They are not absolute truth and not all
researches need hypotheses.
 Scope

• This is also known as the de-limitation or

coverage of the study.
• The scope specifies the limitations
boundaries or restrictions imposed on the
study considering the limitations in terms of
time, cost and skill.
• The scope help to determine the boundaries
of the research by providing answers to such
questions as who, what, when, how many,
etc.
Scope …
• A research study is expected to give at
least three scopes namely:
– Geographical scope, that is where the study is
to take place;
– Content or theoretical scope, that is the
variables the study will consider or relate and
the
– Time scope, the period of time that a content
which is under study will cover. E.g. 2001-2009
Significance or Justifications

• The significance of the study states how

the results of a research will influence the
institution or society in question
• Why the study is worth the time, efforts
and expense.
• That way the significance seeks authority
say from government and also persuades
donor agencies to support the study.
• The significance section of the proposal
should answer at least two questions:
Significance ….

• First how will policy makers or

practitioners (for example government
and other stakeholders benefit from the
study findings?),
• Second, how will theoreticians,
academicians or researchers benefit from
the study findings
 Literature Review
• Since researchers are only contributing to
an on-going debate a good proposal should
include literature review, that is through a
systematic location and study or reading of
document that have information related to
your research problem.
The review helps the researcher to achieve
many things including;
• To obtain detailed knowledge about the
topic/problem under study.
• Share with readers what earlier researchers
and/or writers found and/or said about a
given research issue.
 Literature …
• To identify gaps left by earlier researchers
and/or writers for the current study to fill.
• To see how others went about related
studies, with the aim to replicate their ideas
and methodologies in the proposal study.
NB In reviewing literature a researcher may
have to review theories of relevance to the
proposed study from which s/he may derive
a conceptual framework or model and then
review literature related to the respective
study objectives.
 Theoretical Review
• The theoretical review section in this chapter
of the proposal is usually an expansion of the
theoretical perspective of the background in
that, any theory raised therein is expanded by
giving in details.
• What theory it is, who suggested it, when it
was suggested, what the theory stipulates and
how relevant it is to your study, that is, how it
links the to my proposed study.
• But, what is a theory?
• A “theory” can be regarded as a formulation
regarding the cause and effect relationship
between variable
 Cont …
• According to Kerlinger (1973) a theory is a
set of interrelated constructs, definitions
and propositions that present a systematic
view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the
phenomenon.”
• In research a theory is for providing an
explanation of why and how we should expect
or predict the research should finding.
• There are a number of theories related to our
area of specialization out of which we shall
use path-goal theory of leadership as an
example.
 Theory ….
• This theory submitted by Robert House
(1971) stipulates that a good leader should
enhance subordinates’ job performance by
showing them goals to achieve and the
paths to take in order to achieve the said
goals.
• Studies involving leadership as one of the
variables (for example leadership styles and
performance of administrative staff in the
Magistrates Court in Nyamirambo) can make
use of that theory.
 Cont ..
• Researchers on motivation as one of their
variables (for example Motivation and Staff
Performance in the SOIT in UOK) can explore
the relevance of such theories of motivation
as equity theory on motivation by J. Peason
(1943) which postulates that individual
employees for example compare what they
receive in terms of salary, allowances,
treatment and so on, with what other
employees of the same rank, education, same
work load, and so on receive and if the two
are comparable, there is equity and hence
motivation to work; the opposite occur
otherwise
 Conceptual Framework/Model
• After reviewing theory(ies) of relevance a
researcher may go on to develop a
conceptual framework or model usually in
form of a diagram which visualizes how the
researcher views inter-connections between
variables in the proposed study, in order to
achieve the study objectives.
• The frame work (especially for a quantitative
study) should at least show the IV and DV in
the study and how each is conceptualized or
operationalized (a process that start in the
conceptual perspective of the background and
continue when deriving specific objectives).
 Cont …
• While it may not be a must in all studies in
addition to the IV and D.V a conceptual
model (especially on the demand of the
Supervisor) may include /reflect extraneous
variables (E.V) that is variables competing
with the IV to explain the D.V.
• A framework may also reflect moderating
variable (for details visit variable section).
• As done in most studies, it is conventional for
the I.V (and E.V if any) to be on the left side
the M.V if any to be in the middle while the
D.V on the right.
 Cont …
• Relationship between concepts in the
framework is represented by arrows directed
from the left to the right sometimes via M.V.
• A given conceptual framework or model
should be given an identification number and
a working title.
• The Frame work should also be described
with the description highlighting how the I.V
(E.V, M.V) and D.V are or were
conceptualized or operationalized and
related
E.g Working Capital Management
and Performance of Manufacturing
Firms in Rwanda
• Working Capital Management (IV)
– Cash Management
– Inventory
– Receivable Management
• Performance (DV)
– Liquidity
– Profitability
– Returns on Investment
 Sources of Literature Review
• These sources are classified into two
categories, namely; secondary and primary
sources.
• Secondary Sources: These are publications
written by an author who was not a direct
observer or participant in the event described.
For example, Rwanda Revolution of 1959.
Different authors on this 1959 Rwanda
Revolution were not born by that time have
made several publications. So what they write
is referred to as secondary sources of
information (Amin, 2005).
 Sources ….
• Primary Sources: This is a direct description of
an occurrence by an individual who actually
observed or witnessed its occurrence. For
example Rwanda genocide of 1994, from that
time; many authors have made publications to
this effect. Such authors who have observed
and witnessed the beginning and progress of
Rwanda genocide of 1994 provide a primary
source of information on the subject.
 Sources …
• Boths sources are useful and very important.
However, as much as possible the review of
literature should be based more on primary
sources since the authors of secondary
sources may slant the intentions of primary
sources to agree with their own view and leave
out information that may contradict their
personal views.
• Literature review helps in the various phases of
the research process that is: problem
identification, theoretical perspective; conceptual
perspective, contextual perspective, methodological
view point and in discussing findings of the study.
 Research Methodology
• After searching for and evaluating the
research problem / topic in clear cut terms
and justify a study on it and having officially
reviewed literature related to the study, the
researcher’s intention now turns to the
methodology of the proposed study.
• A methodology is the systematic process the
researcher will follow in the empirical part of
the study.
 Research Design
• A plan for carrying out a research project. A
structure that constitutes the blue-print for the
measurement of variables, collection and
analysis of data.
• Research designs provide specific direction
for procedures in a research design.
• Set of methods a researcher has chosen
from the many available methods to follow
in a particular research.
• Arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data
• The choice of a design is dependent on the
research approach or paradigm chosen.
 Design
• Research designs are categorized into two;
quantitative and qualitative approaches.
However, although both approaches are
welcome and also used in many academic
institutions including UOK, in this class we
shall concentrate on the commonly used
designs which mainly follow under the
quantitative paradigm or approach.
• Quantitative: Experimental and Non-
experimental; Experimental: True experiment
and Quasi-experiment; Non-experimental:
expost facto and descriptive
 Design
• Experimental design; Here the researcher
manipulates the I.V to see its effect on the
D.V. E.g. a medical researcher may give a
particular drug to some patients, while denying
others the same medicine, to see whether
there will be a difference in health levels.
• True Experiment; A researcher deliberately
manipulates the IV; participants are randomly
selected from the target population; and
randomly assigned either to experimental or
control group.
 Quasi experimental
• Its almost like true experiment; however, the
difference is that they do not randomly assign
participants to the two conditions or groups.
• Non-experimental Design is intended to
simply report something that has happened
without manipulating or experimenting with
variable.
• X-tics of Non experimental Design
– The researcher does not tamper with the IV
– Simply makes an observation of what is
happening
– Simply describe something that has happened
 Types of Non-experimental
Designs
• Ex-Post Facto/Casual Comparative; the
researcher studies something (a fact) after it
has happened. To see its cause.
• Ex-Post Facto is a Latin word meaning from
after the fact.
• Descriptive Design; Descriptive: is defined as
a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or
phenomenon that is being studied. This
methodology focuses more on the “what” of the
research subject rather than the “why” of the
research subject. to describe things as they
are. Descriptive is either correlation, case
 Types of Descriptive Designs
• Correlational Design; researcher is simply
examining whether the two variables go
together. Establishes whether a relationship
exists between two or more variables.
• Case study; its is a descriptive study of a unit
of weird (strange/odd/unusual) interest to a
researcher in detail. The unit can be an
organization, a class say of first year students.
The researcher is not focusing on individuals
but the group.
• Exploratory; its undertaken in an area with
very little known. It aims at investigating a new
situation , phenomenon or event.
 Types of Descriptive Designs …
• Survey Design may either be cross-sectional
or longitudinal
• It gathers data from relatively large number of
cases or respondents.
• It is not concerned with characteristics of the
individuals.
• It is concerned with generalized statistics that
results when data are abstracted from a
number of individual cases.
• Cross-sectional design involves getting
responses from informants at once. The
researcher takes a random sample, and tries
to understand the cross-section of interest.
 Descriptive Design
• Longitudinal researches which involve
contacting or checking specimens repeatedly.
• The researcher gets data from many points in
time, that is, takes repeated measurement to
assess whether there are any changes with
time.
• Note that your work will be cross-sectional in
order to reduce time and costs involved.
 Qualitative Design …
• This design has strong philosophical
underpinnings and typically involves
conducting interviews.
• Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from
sociology in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action,
or interaction grounded in the views of
participants.
• This process involves using multiple stages
of data collection and the modification and
interrelationship of categories of information
 Qualitative Design …
• Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming
from anthropology and sociology in which
the researcher studies the shared patterns of
behaviors, language, and actions of an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time. Data collection
often involves observations and interviews.
• Case studies are a design of inquiry found
in many fields, especially evaluation, in
which the researcher develops an in-depth
analysis of a case, often a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals.
 Qualitative Design …
• Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information
using a variety of data collection procedures
over a sustained period of time.
 Mixed Methods Designs
• Mixed methods involve combining or
integration of qualitative and quantitative
research and data in a research study.
• Qualitative data tends to be open-ended
without predetermined responses while
quantitative data usually includes closed-
ended responses such as found ones
questionnaires or psychological instruments.
• The field of mixed methods research is
relatively new.
Convergent parallel mixed methods
• The researcher converges or merges
quantitative and qualitative data in order to
provide a comprehensive analysis of the
research problem.
• The investigator typically collects both forms of
data at roughly the same time and then
integrates the information in the interpretation
of the overall results.
• Contradictions or dissimilar findings are
explained or further investigated in this design.
Explanatory sequential mixed methods;
• The researcher first conducts quantitative
research, analyzes the results and then builds
on the results to explain them in more detail
with qualitative research.
• It is considered explanatory because the initial
quantitative data results are explained further
with the qualitative data.
• It is considered sequential because the initial
quantitative phase is followed by the
qualitative phase.
POPULATION

• A population is the entirety of the unit of analysis

(for example customer, staff, specimen, etc)
about which you, the researcher will measure
your variables. In the population section of your
proposal, you are expected to describe the
nature of your “target or parent population” that
is your intended respondents, informant or
specimen; who or what they will be; where they
will be found, why they have been chosen for
your study and how many they are; usually by
categories.