TE 152

Engineering Research and Technical Report Writing

Research process
• The research process consists of a series of step/ procedures the
researcher must go through in order to efficiently conduct research.

• Listed are the processes involved in research

1. Defining / Selecting the research problem

2. Extensive literature review

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3. Formulating the hypothesis

4. Preparing the research design

5. Sampling

6. Data collection

7. Data analysis
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8. Hypothesis testing

9. Results interpretation

10. Report Writing

Research process
Selecting/ Defining the research problem
The research problem can be defined as some difficulty
which a researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoritical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
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At the outset of a research, the researcher must single out the problem he
wants to study.

The selection of topic for research is a very difficult problem.

Subsequent activities can only be performed after the research problem has
been clearly defined.

Help can be sought from a research guide as far as defining the problem is
concerned**
• The following points should be considered by researchers in selecting
the research problem.
i. Subjects which are overdone should not be normally chosen as it
will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
ii. Controversial subjects should be avoided by new researchers.
iii. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so
that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach.
• Before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask
himself the following questions:
a. Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out
the research?
b. Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
c. Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who
must participate in research as subjects?
Necessity of defining the problem

• Defining the problem unambiguously helps to discriminate relevant

data from irrelevant ones
Techniques involved in defining a research problem
Since the task of defining a research problem could be herculean, it is
important to have a strategy for making it a little easy.
The following techniques can be adopted in defining a clear cut research
problem
i. Statement of the problem in a general way
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem
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iii. Surveying the available literature
iv. Rephrasing and rescoping the problem in a more specific way

• Rescoping is important as it helps ensure focused investigations,

manageable workloads and practicality of the study.
TRY
Consider the research problem below;
Why is productivity in Ghana lower than in the USA?

1. Discuss the issues with the above stated problem

2. How would you explain a research problem?

3. Define the main issues which should receive the attention of the researcher in formulating the research
problem.
4. Give suitable examples to elucidate your points.
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Extensive Literature Review
After the research topic has been decided on, the next stage is to review
pertinent literature related with the topic.

The literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research

on a particular topic.
Research process
• The literature review will help the researcher acquaint himself with the
selected problem.

• At this stage, academic journals, conference proceedings, books,

reports etc, could be relied on for knowldege.

• There are several online libraries that provide access to digital

resources and research materials. These libraries can be tapped to
acquire the relevant materials for research.
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• Some examples of online libraries for accessing related works in a
field are:
1. Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/home.uri)

2. IEEE X’plore (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/home.jsp)

3. Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com)

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• A good literature review should
a) Compare and contrast different author’s views on a topic
b) Group authors who draw similar conclusions
c) Criticise aspects of the methodology
d) Highlight exemplary studies
e) Highlight gaps in research
f) Show how your studies relate to the literature
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Essence of Literature review
The review of literature is important as it helps
a) Researchers define and scope their research problem
b) Researchers place their studies in historical perspective
c) Researchers avoid duplication
d) Researchers evaluate promising research methods
e) Researchers relate their findings to previous knowledge and suggest
further research
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Tips for Writing a Literature review
a. BE A HUNTER! Using specific search words/ keywords, search for
books, articles, and papers that are related to your subject.
b. Read with a purpose
c. Ask your supervisor for recommendations**
d. When you read a literature that is related to your subject, record its
reference to aid in your report write up.
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• A good literature needs clear line of argument. Hence, make notes and
jot down useful comments as you read to express an academin
opinion.
More generally for each reading you do, focus on
i. How the approach works
ii. What kinds of problems it is solving
iii. What knids of problems it is poor at solving
iv. Other strengths and weaknesses
v. Decide if you will use it for your research or otherwise.
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Formulating the Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a proposed explanations made on the basis of limited
evidence at the starting point of research for further investigations.

It can be thought of as an educated guess that the researcher formulates

based on existing knowledge, theories or observations.
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• In scientific and engineering research, the formulation of the
hypothesis serves as the starting point for investigations and guides the
research process.

• The research hypothesis can take two forms:

1. The Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is no
significant relationship between variables. It suggests that any
oberved results are due to chance.
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Researchers typically aim to reject the null hypothesis in favor of an
alternative hypothesis.

2. Alternative Hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis contradicts the

null hypothesis and proposes are specific relationship between the
variables. It suggests that the observed results are not due to chance but
are influenced by the variables under investigation.
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Preparing the research design
• After the research problem has been defined in clear cut terms, and a
hypothesis has been created for it, the researcher will have to prepare the
research design

• The research design is the overall plan / strategy that outlines how a
research study will be conducted.

• It provides a framework for implementing the processes involved in the

research study.
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• For instance, how data will be collected, analyzed, interpreted etc.

• A well-designed research should be systematic, logical and based on

clearly defined research objectives/ goals.

• In Engineering research, a number of research designs exist, however,

the choice of design depends on the nature of research and the
objectives of the study.
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• Some examples of research designs include
Experimental, Survey, Case study and Observational research designs.

Experimental designs typically involve the manipulation of variables/

participants in order to ascertain a cause-effect relationship. Thus, it
usually involves an experimental group that receives an intervention/
treatment, and a control group that does not receive such treatment.
The effects of the treatment is then accessed by comparing participants
in those groups.
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In Observational designs, researchers observe and record the behaior
of participants. It can either be a naturalistic or structured
oberservation.
In naturalistic observations, participants are observed in their natural
environment.
In structured observations, participants are observed in a controlled
setting.
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Survey designs involve collecting data either through questionnaires
or interviews to gather information about opinions, behaviors,
attitudes or characteristics of a sample of population. Surveys can be
cross sectional or

Case study designs focus on in-depth exploration and analysis of a

single individual, group or situation.
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Determining the Sample Design.
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
population.

A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is called a

census inquiry.

In a census inquiry, all the items are covered with zero chance of an
element left. Hence the highest possible accuracy is obtained.
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• In practise, the census inquiry demands a lot of time, money and
energy, therefore a resonable section of the population is used.

• The items selected from the population constitute what is technically

called a sample.

• Thus, the researcher must decide the sample to select, the number
involved and the method of selecting the sample.
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Thus, the sample design is a definite plan determined even before any
data are collected for obtaining a sample in a given population.

For instance, the plan to select 12 out of 50 telecommunication

engineering students for a sentiment analysis task constitute a sample
design.

Two main types of samples;

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• Probability samples: Each element/item has a known probability of
being included in the sample. Some examples of probability sampling
are: Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling
etc.

• Non probability samples: The probability of each items inclusion in

the sample is not known by the researcher. Some examples of non
probability sampling are: convenience sampling and judgement
sampling.
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Characteristics of a good sample design
A good sample design should possess the following;
1.Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
2. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study.
3.Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in
a better way.
4.Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
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Collection of the Data
Data collection is an important phase in any research study.

Inaccurate data collected can heavily impact the results of the study and
unltimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection is the process of gathering data for research purposes.

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• Ultimately, it involves the collection,recording, and organizing of
appropriate/ relevant data to the research study.

• Two techniques exist for collecting data

i. Primary: Primarily data can be collected through experiment,

surveys and observation
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ii. Secondary: Secondarily, data can be collected through review of
literature, official and non official reports, library approach.
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Analysis of Data
After the data has been collected, it is important to analyze the data in
order to gain knowledge and insights from the data.
The activities involved in analysing the data can be categorized into 2
i. Data processing: This involves a number of closely related activities
such as data editing, data categorization, tabulation, presentation
and interpretations.
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ii. Data Exposition: This involves data description, narration,
conclusion/findings, recommentdations/suggestions
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Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher can now test the hypothesis
formulated earlier, if any.

Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting

it.

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalisations established

on the basis of the data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by
subsequent researches.
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• Various tests exist for testing the hypothesis. Examples include the chi
square test, t-test, F-test etc.
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Generalizations and Interpretations
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for
the researcher to arrive at certain generalizations.

The task of drawing these conclusions or generalizations is called

Interpretations.

The process of interpretation may often trigger new questions for further
researches.
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Preparing the Report
Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what he has done.
The layout of the report should be as follows
i. the preliminary pages
ii. the main text
iii. the end matter
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• In the preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed
by acknowledgements and foreword.
• Then there should be a table of contents, followed by a list of tables,
list of graphs and charts if any.

• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
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(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language.
If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact,
it is the final summing up.
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• At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc.,
consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.
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Tips for Report Writing
• Reports should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions
such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only
if they present the information more clearly.
• Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting
research operations may as well be stated.
• WE ARE FAMILY…..