Module 1

Introduction to computers
What is a computer
• A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of
instructions.
• Programmable device that store, retrieves and process data.
• Earlier “Computer described the people those who performed
calculations using mechanical calculators such as ABACUS. Later it was
given to mechanical device that replaced human for calculation.
• Todays computers are electronic devices that accept data, process the
data, produce the output and store the output.
History of computer
• History of computer is broken into 5 generations.
• Defining factor of each generation is a significant leap in technology
that changed the way the computer is operated.
• Zeroth Generation computers are the computing devices which
existed before 1945. they were mechanical calculators.
First generation (1945-1956)
• Operates on Vacuum tubes, which serves as circuitary.
• Magnetic drums served as memory
• It was sized about entire room, and was bulk. Weighed around 30
tonnes
• It lot of electricity and heated up quickly.
• Not at all cost effective.
• Solve one problem at a time, may take one day or even a week to
solve a problem.
• Eg: ENIAC, IBM-701
Second Generation(1956-1963)
• Vacuum tubes were replaced with transistors, that resulted in smaller,
faster and cheaper computers
• Magnetic drums were replaced with magnetic cores.
• Requires less energy to run and produced less heat. Doesn’t break
down as much as their predecessors
• Moved from machine language to assembly language. Means
computer can understand commands given in words.
• Able to store instructions in memory.
• Eg: Honeywell 400
Third generation (1964-1971)
• Started using integrated circuits(ICs), basically large number of transistors, in
small chip. They are smaller and cheaper.
• The computers became small enough so that people can buy computers for
home.
• Computers became available to public.
• Previous generation computers used punched cards and printouts for
communicating with user. 3rd generation started using keyboard and monitor.
• Operating system was introduced, which allowed computer to run multiple
programs simultaneously.
• Eg: PDP-8
Fourth Generation(1971 – 1980)
• ICs became small enough to mount thousands of them in a single chip.
• This chip became responsible for everything from memory and central
processing unit.
• In 1980 IBM introduced first home computer.
• Microprocessors were introduced to personal computers, and were
integrated in other everyday products.
• With popularity of personal computers, it became possible to create
network between them.
• Eg: PDP 11
Fifth Generation(1980 – present)
•  In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
• This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software.
• Aim is to make a device which could respond o natural language input
and are capable of learning and self organization
• Eg: laptops, notebooks
Components of a computer system
Input unit
• Used to provide instructions to the computer
•  The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.
• Eg: keyboard, mouse,
Output devices
• Used by computer to give information to user.
• Output devices translate the computer's output into a form
understandable by the users.
• Eg: Monitor, Printer
CPU
• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all
types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate
results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all
parts of the computer.
• CPU itself has the following three components −
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Memory Unit
• Control Unit
• Arithmetic and logic unit
• Part of cpu where all arithmetic and logic calculations take place.
• Control Unit
• Oversees and controls all the operations happening in computer.
• Memory Unit (Storage unit)
• Devices that are used to store processed data Eg: Hard disk, CD etc.
Interfacing with a computer
• External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external
device is plugged in
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse,
keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.
• Examples of ports : USB, HDMI, Ethernet
Hardware and software
• Hardware
• Physical devices which are connected to computer, or used in computer
• Eg : Keyboard, monitor, mouse, and most importantly motherboard
• Software
• Commonly known as programs or apps
• Consists of instructions that tells hardware how to operate.
• Software is platform dependent.(OS+CPU). A software designed for windows will not
work on Linux.
• Two types of software:
• System Software : helps computer to control the hardware. Eg: OS, device drivers
• Application software: allows user to accomplish one or more task eg : browser,
word processor
Operating Systems (OS)
• What is an operating system?
• Software that acts as an interface between end users and computer
hardware. Every computer must have an OS to run other programs.
• Helps user to communicate with computer
• Definition: program that acts as an interface between user and computer
hardware, and controls and execution of all kinds of programs.
History of OS
• First developed in 1950 to manage storage.
• General motors research lab implemented the first OS for their IBM
701, by late 1960, first version of UNIX OS was developed.
• First OS of Microsoft was DOS – 1981
• The present day popular OS windows came in 1995.
• Other popular OS : Ubuntu, MacOS, Android.
Functions of OS
• Memory management
• Management of primary or main memory – large array of words or bytes
where each has its own address. Main memory provides storage that can be
accessed directly by CPU.
• OS manage memory by:
• Keeping track, that is which part is in use, by whom
• In multi programming, OS decides which process should use memory, when and how
much
• Allocated memory when a process request and deallocates when it is no longer needed
• Processor management
• In multiple programming, which process gets the processor and the time
needed to process the data. This function is process scheduling.
• OS does this function by
• Keeping track of processor and status of process. Program responsible this task is known
as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor(CPU) and deallocates when it is not required
• Device management
• Manages device communication via respective device driver.
• OS manages device by
• Keeping track of all devices
• Program responsible for this task – Input/output controller (I/O controller). T decides
which process gets the device, when and for how much time.
• Allocates and de allocates as required.
• File management
• A filesystem is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage.
• OS performs this function by
• Keeping track of information, location, uses and status. This collectively is often known
as file system.
• Decides who gets the resource, when and how much.
• Allocation and deallocation of resources
• Other functions
• Security
• By means of passwords and similar techniques, OS prevents unauthorized access to data.
• Controls the system performance
• Job accounting
• Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users
• Error detection
• It detects the production of dumps, traces, error messages and other errors with error
detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users
• Coordinates and assign other software to various users of computer system
Types of OS
• Batch operating system
• Some computer processes are lengthy and time consuming. To speed up the same, jobs with
similar types or needs are batched together and run as a group. There is no direct user-computer
interaction
• User prepare job or instruction on an offline device, and submit it to the operator. Earlier punch
cards were used as offline device.
• Time sharing/Multitasking OS
• Enables people located at different terminals to use a single computer system at the same time.
• The processor time which is shared among multiple users is termed as time sharing.
• Multiple jobs are executed by CPU by switching between them.
• OS decides and allocates time for processing jobs of each users.
• Time taken by CPU to process a job is less than seconds. This is reason user get immediate
response, and CPU functioning by switching. Eg: Linux
• Distributed OS
• in order to process large volume of data , a single processor might not be
enough. For this there are computers in which multiple CPU’s are connected
together. These processors communicate with each other through high speed
buses.
• OS for managing this entire system is known as distributed operating system.
• OS distributes data processing job among the processors.
• Network operating system
• Network OS runs on a server, providing it(server) the capability to manage the
network. Network functions like security, applications etc.
• Primary function is to allow the computer (connected to network) access the
printers or other devices, connected to that network, and also share files
among them.
• Eg: Windows Server 2008, Fedora.
• Real time operating system
• Used to perform time critical operations. There will be a fixed response time,
for every input, which is less than nano-seconds. Response time – time taken
by OS to analyze input and give response.
• Eg: medical imaging system, air traffic control, scientific experiments, weapon
system.
• Two types of real time OS – hard real time and soft Realtime.
• Hard Real time OS – address more time critical operations. Data stored in ROM. Eg : air
traffic control
• Soft real time – address time critical, but not dangerous situations. Critical task gets
higher priority. Eg : Virtual reality.
Computer networks
• What is a computer network
• Set of computers that are connected together so that they can share
information and share files.
• Basis of communication in IT.
• Used to
• Share devices – printers scanners etc.
• Share files
• Share software and operating programs.
• There are also multiple devise or mediums that helps in communication
between two devices, often known as network devices(Eg: Router, Hub, Bridge).
• First computer network designed was ARPANET(advanced research projects
agency network) US defense department
Types of computer networks
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Group of computers and network devices within limited geographic area.
• Generally data transfer speed is high.
• Computers and servers can connect to each other via cables or wirelessly in same
network. Also used for network storages and network printing.
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Network that covers relatively large area such as state, province or a country.
• Used for Provides solution to companies and organizations operating in different
locations.
• WAN is made of two or more LANs or MANs that are interconnected with each other
• Internet is worlds largest WAN.
• Metropolitan Area Network
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users
with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that
covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than
the area covered by a wide area network (WAN).
• Others
• Personal Area Network
• Home Area Network
• Campus network
• Enterprise Private network
• Global Area network.
Network Topologies
There are more ways to connect computers each other. These different ways
are called as network topologies.

• Star Topology
• Central node connect a cable to each computer in
the network.
• Each computer is independently connected to
central node, so that of one computer breaks
down, others wont be affected.
• But if central node breaks down, entire network
breaks down.
Bus Topology
• One cable connects all the computers .
• Any information shared will go through all connected computers.
• Drawback is if anything happens to cable, none of the computers or
node can reach the network, the entire network goes down.
Ring Topology
• Connected in the form of a ring. The data shared travels around the
ring.
• Each computer will examine the destination address and copy the
data if their address matches that of the data. Or else the computer
will pass on the data to next node or computer in the ring
• Mesh Topology
• All computer are computers are connected to every other computers in
network.
• Data will be delivered faster.
• Drawback is, it requires lot of cables, hard to setup and level of complexity
increases with increase in number of computers.