Heat Conduction Equation

BMCG 2123
Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, UTeM
Taufik
Week 2

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 1

 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
 Explain multidimensionality and time dependence of heat
transfer.
 Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems.
 Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain
the temperature distributions within a medium and the heat
flux,
 Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that
involve heat generation.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 2

 Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
 Introduction ─ Continue
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
– cylindrical (T(r, , z, t)),
– spherical (T(r, , , t)).
 Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
• steady versus transient heat transfer,
• multidimensional heat transfer,
• heat generation.
 Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium

• Transient implies variation with time or time

dependence
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional,
– two dimensional,
– three-dimensional.
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a
medium is three-dimensional. However, some
problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional
depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer
rates in different directions and the level of accuracy
desired.
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium
in a specified direction (say, in the x-direction) is
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction
for one-dimensional heat conduction as:
dT
Qcond   kA
 (W) (2-1)
dx
• Heat is conducted in the direction
of decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the positive x-
direction.
 General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the surface of
the figure must be perpendicular to the surface,
and it must point in the direction of decreasing
temperature
• If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P,
the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by
Fourier’s law as
dT
Qn   kA
 (W) (2-2)
dn
 General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction-Continue
• In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed
 in terms of its components
  
as Q  Q i  Q j  Q k (2-3)
n x y z

• which
  can be determined from Fourier’s law as
T
Qx   kAx x

 T
Qy   kAy (2-4)
 y
 T
Qz   kAz

 z
 Heat Generation
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
– exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with
time as well as position within the medium.
• The total rate of heat generation in a medium of
volume V can be determined from
gen 
E  e dV (W)
V
gen (2-5)
Exercise 1
• The resistance wire of a 1200-W hair dryer is 80 cm
long and has diameter of D = 0.3 cm. Determine:
a) the rate of heat generation in the wire per unit
volume, in W/cm3, and
b) The heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as
result of this heat generation.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 12

Solution 1
a) The rate of heat generation:

E gen E gen 1200 W

e gen     212 W/cm 3
Vwire D / 4L  (0.3cm) / 480cm
2 2

b) The heat flux on the outer surface:

E gen E gen 1200 W
Q s     15.9 W / cm 2
Awire DL  (o.3cm)(80cm)

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 13

 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Plane Wall
Rate of Rate of Rate of heat Rate of change
- heat + generation
heat = of the energy
conductio conduction inside the content of the
n at x+x element element
at x

E

Qx Qx x  Egen,element
   element
t
(2-6)
 Eelement
Qx  Qx x  E gen,element 
   (2-6)
t
• The change in the energy content and the rate of
heat generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc  Tt t  Tt    cAx  Tt t  Tt  (2-7)


 Egen ,element  e genVelement  e gen Ax (2-8)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get

Tt t  Tt (2-9)
 
Qx  Qx x gen
 e
 Ax   cAx
t
• Dividing by Ax, taking the limit as x 0 and
t 0, and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA   egen   c
 (2-11)
A x  x  t
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one
dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a
plane wall is
Variable conductivity:   k T   e gen   c T (2-13)
x  x  t
 2T e gen 1 T k
Constant conductivity:   ;  (2-14)
x 2
k  t c

The one-dimensional conduction equation may be

reduces to the following forms under special
conditions d 2T e gen
  0 (2-15)
1) Steady-state: dx 2
k
 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat x 2

 t
(2-16)
generation:
d 2T (2-17)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2
0
dx
 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Long Cylinder
Rate of Rate of Rate of heat Rate of change
- heat + generation
heat = of the energy
conductio conduction inside the content of the
n at r+r element element
at r

Eelement
Q r Q r r  E gen ,element 
t
(2-18)
 Eelement
Qr  Qr r  E gen ,element 
   (2-18)
t

• The change in the energy content and the rate

of heat generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc  Tt t  Tt    cAr  Tt t  Tt  (2-19)


 Egen ,element  e genVelement  e gen Ar (2-20)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–18, we get

Tt t  Tt (2-21)
 
Qr  Qr r gen
 e
 Ar   cAr
t

• Dividing by Ar, taking the limit as r 0 and t 0, and

from Fourier’s law: 1   T  T
 kA  e

 gen   c (2-23)
A r  r  t
Noting that the area varies with the independent
variable r according to A=2rL, the one dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall
becomes 1   T 
rk  e
   c
T (2-25)
 
Variable conductivity: r r  r  gen
t
1   T  e gen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-26)
r r  r  k  t
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be
reduces to the following forms under special
conditions 1 d  dT  e gen (2-27)
 r    0
1) Steady-state: r dr  dr  k
1   T  1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: r  (2-28)
r r  r   t
d  dT 
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: r 0 (2-29)
dr  dr 
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Sphere

1   2 T  T
Variable conductivity: r k   e gen   c (2-30)
r r 
2
r  t

1   2 T  e gen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-31)
r r  r  k
2
 t
General Heat Conduction Equation

Rate of Rate of Rate of heat Rate of

heat - heat +generation= change
conductio conduction inside the of the
n at x+x, element energy
at x, y, y+y, and content of
and z z+z the element
Eelement (2-36)
Qx  Qy  Qz Qx x  Qy y  Qz z
       E gen ,element 
t
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the
one-dimensional heat conduction the three-
dimensional heat conduction equation is determined
to be Two-
dimensional
 2T  2T  2T e gen 1 T
Constant conductivity:  2  2   (2-39)
x 2
y z k  t

Three-
dimensional
 2T  2T  2T e gen (2-40)
    0
1) Steady-state: x 2 y 2 z 2 k
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: x 2  y 2  z 2   t (2-41)

 2T  2T  2T (2-42)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2  2  2  0
x y z
Exercise 2
• A 2-kW resistance heater with thermal conductivity
k = 15 W/m.K, diameter D = 0.4 cm, and length L =
50 cm is used to boil water by immersing it in water.
Assuming the variation of thermal conductivity of
the wire with temperature to be negligible, obtain
the differential equation that describes the variation
of the temperature in the wire during steady state
operation.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 23

Analysis
The resistance wire of a water heater is considered to
be a very long cylinder since its length is more than
100 times its diameter. Also heat is generated
uniformly in the wire and the conditions on the outer
surface of the wire are uniform. Therefore, it is
reasonable to expect the temperature in the wire to
vary in the radial r direction only and thus the heat
transfer to be one-dimensional. Then we have T=T(r)
during steady operation since the temperature in this
case depends on r only.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 24

Solution 1
The rate of heat generation in the wire per unit volume:
E gen E gen 2000W
e gen     0.318x10 9 W/m 3
V wire D 2

/4L   0.004m / 4 0.5m
2

Nothing that the thermal conductivity is given to be constant, the

differential equation that governs the variation of temperature
in the wire is simply Eq.2-27 e gen
1 d dT  
 r  0
r dr  dr  k
Which steady one-dimensional heat conduction equation in
cylindrical coordinates for the case of constant thermal
conductivity.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 25

 Cylindrical Coordinates

1   T  1 T  T    T  T
 rk  2 k  k   e gen   c
r r  r  r     z  z  t
(2-43)
 Spherical Coordinates

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr  2 2 k  2  k sin    egen   c

r r  r  r sin      r sin      t
2

(2-44)
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions
 Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat
transfer through a plane wall of
thickness L, for example, the
specified temperature boundary
conditions can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
(2-46)
T(L, t) = T2

The specified temperatures can be constant, which is

the case for steady heat conduction, or may vary
with time.
 Specified Heat Flux Boundary
Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-
direction anywhere in the medium,
including the boundaries, can be
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as
dT Heat flux in
q   k  the positive (2-
dx x-direction 47)
The sign of the specified heat flux is determined
by inspection: positive if the heat flux is in the
positive direction of the coordinate axis, and
negative if it is in the opposite direction.
 Two Special Cases
Insulated boundary Thermal symmetry

k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0  
T L , t
2 0
x x x
(2-49) (2-50)
 Convection Boundary Condition

Heat Heat
conduction
at the surface = convection
at the surface
in a in the same
selected direction
direction
T (0, t )
k  h1  T1  T (0, t )  (2-51a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k  h2  T ( L, t )  T 2  (2-51b)
x
 Radiation Boundary Condition

Heat Radiation
conduction
at the surface
= exchange at
the surface in
in a the same
selected direction
direction
T (0, t )
k  1 Tsurr
4
,1  T (0, t ) 4
 (2-52a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k   2 T ( L, t ) 4  Tsurr
4

,2 
(2-52b)
x
 Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same temperature
at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.

TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t) (2-53)

and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A   k B B 0 (2-54)
x x
 Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection,
radiation, and specified heat flux simultaneously.
The boundary condition in such cases is again
obtained from a surface energy balance, expressed
as Heat transfer Heat transfer
to the
surface
= from the
surface
in all modes In all modes
Heat Generation in Solids
The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts
and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in
the medium in steady operation.
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
Rate of Rate of
heat transfer
from the
= energy (2-63)
generation
solid within the
For uniform heat generation solid
within the medium
Q  e genV (W) (2-64)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also
be expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
- Q  hAs  Ts  T  (W) (2-65)

e genV
Ts  T  (2-66)
hAs
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall
and V=2LAwall)
e gen L
Ts , plane wall  T  (2-67)
h
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2r0L
and V=r02L) e gen r0
Ts ,cylinder  T  (2-68)
2h
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4r02 and V=4/3r03)
e gen r0
Ts , sphere  T  (2-69)
3h
 Heat Generation in Solids -The maximum
Temperature in a Cylinder (the Centerline)
The heat generated within an inner
cylinder must be equal to the heat
conducted through its outer surface.
dT
kAr  e genVr (2-70)
dr
Substituting these expressions into the above
equation and separating the variables, we get
dT e gen
k  2 rL 
dr
 2

 e gen  r L  dT  
2k
rdr

Integrating from r =0 where T(0) =T0 to r=ro

e gen r02
Tmax,cylinder  T0  Ts  (2-
4k
71)
Exercise 3
• A 2-kW resistance heater with thermal conductivity k
= 15 W/m.K, diameter D = 4 mm, and length L = 0.5 m
is used to boil water. If the outer surface temperature
of the resistance wire is Ts = 105oC, determine the
temperature at the center of the wire.
• Assumption:
– Heat transfer is steady since there is no change with time
– Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry
about the center line and no change in the axial direction.
– Thermal conductivity is constant
– Heat generation in the heater is uniform

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 39

Solution 3
The heat generation per unit volume:
E gen E gen 2000W
 0.318x109 W/m 3
e gen 
Vwire

r L   0.002m  0.5m
0
2
 2

The center temperature of the wire using Eq.2-71

T0  Ts 
e gen r02
 105 o

 0.318x10 W / m  0.002m 
9 3 2
 126o C
4k 415W / m. C  o

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 40

 Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
• The thermal conductivity of a
material, in general, varies with
temperature.
• An average value for the
thermal conductivity is
commonly used when the
variation is mild.
• This is also common practice
for other temperature-
dependent properties such as
the density and specific heat.
Variable Thermal Conductivity for One-
Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the
thermal conductivity in the temperature range
between T1 and T2 can be determined
T from

2
k (T )dT
kave 
T1 (2-75)
T2  T1
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material
with can often be approximated as a linear
function and expressed as
k (T )  k0 (1   T ) (2-79)

 the temperature coefficient of thermal

 Variable Thermal Conductivity
• For a plane wall the
temperature varies linearly
during steady one-
dimensional heat conduction
when the thermal
conductivity is constant.
• This is no longer the case
when the thermal
conductivity changes with
temperature (even linearly).
Exercise 4
• A 2-m-high and 0.7-m-wide bronze plate whose
thickness is 0.1 m. One side of the plate is
maintained at a constant temperature of 600 K
while the other side is maintained at400 K, as
shown in Figure 2.1. Thermal conductivity of the
bronze plate can be assumed to vary linearly in
the temperature range as K(T)=k0(1+βT) where
k0 = 38 W/m.K and β = 9.21x10-4 K-1. Disregarding Figure 2.1
the effects and assuming steady one-
dimensional heat transfer, determine the rate of
heat conduction through the plate.

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 44

Solution 4
• The average thermal conductivity of the medium is
simply the value at the average temperature:
T2  T1 
k avg   
 k Tavg  k 0 1  
2 




  38W / m.K  1  9.21x10  4 K 1
 600  400 K   55.5 W/m.K
 2 
 
• The rate of heat conduction through the plate using
Eq. 2-76:
T  T2
Q  k avg A 1
L
  55.5W / m.K  2mx0.7m 
 600  400 K  155 kW
0.1m

12/08/21 BMCG 2123 Heat Transfer 45