Two-Dimensional Conduction: Shape Factors and Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rates

Two-Dimensional Conduction:
Shape Factors
and
Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rates
Chapter 4
Sections 4.1 and 4.3
General Considerations
General Considerations
• Two-dimensional conduction:
– Temperature distribution is characterized by two spatial coordinates,
e.g., T (x,y).
– Heat flux vector is characterized by two directional components,
e.g., qx′′ and qy′′ .
• Heat transfer in a long, prismatic solid with two isothermal surfaces

and two insulated surfaces:
Note the shapes of lines of constant temperature (isotherms) and heat flow lines
(adiabats).
What is the relationship between isotherms and heat flow lines?

Solution Methods
The Heat Equation and Methods of Solution

• Assuming steady-state, two-dimensional conduction in a rectangular domain
with constant thermal conductivity and heat generation, the heat equation is:
∂2T ∂2T q& ( x, y )

+ 2 + =0
∂x2
∂y k
• Solution Methods:
– Exact/Analytical: Separation of Variables (Section 4.2)
¾ Limited to simple geometries and boundary conditions.
– Approximate/Graphical ( q& = 0 ) : Flux Plotting (Section 4 S.1)

¾ Of limited value for quantitative considerations but a quick aid to
establishing physical insights.
– Approximate/Numerical: Finite-Difference, Finite Element or Boundary

Element Method.
¾ Most useful approach and adaptable to any level of complexity.
Flux Plots
Flux Plots
• Utility: Requires delineation of isotherms and heat flow lines. Provides a
quick means of estimating the rate of heat flow.
• Procedure: Systematic construction of nearly perpendicular isotherms and heat
flow lines to achieve a network of curvilinear squares.
• Rules:
– On a schematic of the two-dimensional conduction domain, identify all
lines of symmetry, which are equivalent to adiabats and hence heat flow lines.
– Sketch approximately uniformly spaced isotherms on the schematic,

choosing a small to moderate number in accordance with the desired
fineness of the network and rendering them approximately perpendicular
to all adiabats at points of intersection.
– Draw heat flow lines in accordance with requirements for a network

of curvilinear squares.
• See Supplemental Section 4 S.1

Flux Plots (cont.)
Example: Square channel with isothermal inner and outer surfaces.
– Note simplification achieved by identifying lines of symmetry.

– Requirements for curvilinear squares:
¾ Intersection of isotherms and heat flow lines at right angles
¾ Approximate equivalence of sums of opposite sides
ab + cd ac + bd
Δx ≡ ≈ ≡ Δy (4 S.1)
2 2
– Determination of heat rate:
⎡ ΔTj ⎤ Ml
q ≈ Mqi ≈ M ⎢ k ( Δy ⋅ l ) ⎥
≈ k ΔT1−2
⎣ Δx ⎦ N
M
q′ ≈ k ΔT1−2 (4 S.5)
N
Shape Factor
The Conduction Shape Factor

• Two- or three-dimensional heat transfer in a medium bounded by two isothermal
surfaces at T1 and T2 may be represented in terms of a conduction shape
factor S.
q = Sk (T1 − T2 ) (4.20)
• Exact and approximate results for common two- and three-dimensional systems are
provided in Table 4.1(a). For example,
Case 6. Long (L>>w) circular
cylinder centered in square
solid of equal length
2π L
S=
1n (1.08w / D )
• Two-dimensional conduction resistance:
Rcond ( 2 D ) = ( Sk )
−1
(4.21)
Dimensionless Heat Rate
The Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rate

• For isothermal objects of surface area As and temperature T1 embedded in
an infinite medium at temperature T2, heat transfer may be represented by
*
a dimensionless conduction heat rate qss .
q = q*ss kAs (T1 − T2 ) / Lc (4.23)
where the object’s characteristic length Lc is

Lc ≡ ( As / 4π )
1/ 2 (4.22)
• Exact and approximate results for common systems are provided

in Table 4.1 (b). For example,
Case 12. Isothermal sphere

q*ss = 1
• For any object, qss ≈ 1.

*
Problem: Shape Factor
Problem 4.9 Heat-generating radioactive waste in a buried container

of known size and shape. Find container surface temperature.
Schematic:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Soil is a homogeneous medium of known and
constant properties, (3) Negligible contact resistance.
PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Soil (300 K): k = 0.52 W/m·K.
ANALYSIS: From an energy balance on the container, q = E& g and from case 1 of Table 4.1(a),
2π D
q= k (T1 − T2 )
1 − D / 4z
Problem: Shape Factor (cont.)
Hence ,
q (1 − D / 4 z )
T1 = T2 +
k 2π D
500W (1-2m/40m )
=20oC+ =92.7 o C
0.52 W/m ⋅ K 2π(2m)
COMMENTS:
(1) If the canister is buried within an infinite medium of temperature T2=20°C, we may use
Case 12 of Table 4.1(b). With As = π D 2 and q*ss = 1, Eqns. (4.22) and (4.23) yield
q 500W
T1 = T2 + = 20oC+ = 96.5 o C
k 2π D 0.52W/m ⋅ K 2π(2m)
Does this value make sense to you?
(2) Using case 1 of Table 4.1(a) with z → ∞, evaluate T1.

Does this value make sense to you?
Problem: Thermal Circuit
Problem 4.24: Attachment of a long aluminum pin fin (D=5mm) to a

base material of aluminum or stainless steel. Determine
the fin heat rate and the junction temperature (a) without
and (b) with a junction resistance.
The heat flow lines shown in the figure presume a fin effectiveness of εf > 1 . How would the lines look
for εf < 1 ?
Schematic:
Problem: Thermal Circuit (cont)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Large base material, (4)
Infinite fin.
PROPERTIES: Aluminum alloy, k = 240 W/m⋅K, Stainless steel, k = 15 W/m⋅K.
ANALYSIS: (a,b) From the thermal circuit with the junction resistance, the heat rate and junction
temperature are
T −T Tb − T∞
qf = b ∞ = (1)
Rtot Rb + Rt , j + R f
(
T j = T∞ + q f R f + Rt , j ) (2)
From Case 10 of Table 4.1, S=2D. Hence, from Eq. (4.21)

−1
Rb = 1 Skb = 1 ( 2 Dkb ) = ( 2 × 0.005 m × kb ) K/W
With A c =π D 2 , the junction resistance is

4
Rt , j = Rt′′, j Ac = 3 × 10−5 m 2 ⋅ K W π ( 0.005 m ) 4 = 1.528 K W
2
1/ 2
With q f = ( hPkAc ) θb for an infinite fin (Table 3.4) and P = π D,
−1/ 2 −1/ 2
= ⎡50 W m 2 ⋅ K π 2 ( 0.005 m ) 240 W m ⋅ K 4 ⎤
3
R f = ( hPkAc ) = 16.4 K W
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Problem: Thermal Circuit (cont.)
Without R ′′t, j With R ′′t, j

Base Rb (K/W) qf (W) Tj (°C) qf (W) Tj (°C)
Al alloy 0.417 4.46 98.2 4.09 92.1
St. steel 6.667 3.26 78.4 3.05 75.1
COMMENTS:
(1) Why is the effect of the base material on the heat rate and the junction temperature substantial for the
stainless steel and not for the aluminum?
(2) Why is the relative effect of the contact resistance on the heat rate and the junction temperature more
pronounced for the aluminum alloy base than for the stainless steel?

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Two-Dimensional Conduction:

• Heat transfer in a long, prismatic solid with two isothermal surfaces

What is the relationship between isotherms and heat flow lines?

The Heat Equation and Methods of Solution

∂2T ∂2T q& ( x, y )

– Approximate/Graphical ( q& = 0 ) : Flux Plotting (Section 4 S.1)

– Approximate/Numerical: Finite-Difference, Finite Element or Boundary

– Sketch approximately uniformly spaced isotherms on the schematic,

– Draw heat flow lines in accordance with requirements for a network

• See Supplemental Section 4 S.1

– Note simplification achieved by identifying lines of symmetry.

The Conduction Shape Factor

The Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rate

q = q*ss kAs (T1 − T2 ) / Lc (4.23)

where the object’s characteristic length Lc is

• Exact and approximate results for common systems are provided

Case 12. Isothermal sphere

• For any object, qss ≈ 1.

Problem 4.9 Heat-generating radioactive waste in a buried container

PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Soil (300 K): k = 0.52 W/m·K.

Does this value make sense to you?

(2) Using case 1 of Table 4.1(a) with z → ∞, evaluate T1.

Problem 4.24: Attachment of a long aluminum pin fin (D=5mm) to a

PROPERTIES: Aluminum alloy, k = 240 W/m⋅K, Stainless steel, k = 15 W/m⋅K.

From Case 10 of Table 4.1, S=2D. Hence, from Eq. (4.21)

With A c =π D 2 , the junction resistance is

Without R ′′t, j With R ′′t, j

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