3 Basic Characteristics of Soils - 2

Basic Characteristics of Soils
土的基本特性
倪静
Email address: [email protected]
University of Shanghai for Science and Technology

Basic Characteristics of Soils
• The nature of soils 土的本质

• Particle size analysis 粒径分析
• Plasticity of fine soils 细粒土的塑性
• Three-phase relationship 三相关系
The nature of soils
To the civil engineer, soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented

accumulation of mineral particles formed by the weathering of rocks
（岩石风化） , the void space between the particles containing water
and/or air. Weak cementation can be due to carbonates （碳酸盐） or
oxides （氧化物） precipitated （沉淀） between the particles or
due to organic matter （有机物） .
The nature of soils
If the products of weathering remain at their original location they

constitute a residual soil （残积土） . If the products are transported
and deposited in a different location they constitute a transported soil
（运积土） , the agents of transportation being gravity, wind, water and
glaciers （冰川） . During transportation the size and shape of particles
can undergo change and the particles can be sorted into size ranges.
The nature of soils
The destructive process in the formation of soil from rock may be either
physical or chemical. The physical process may be erosion by the action of
wind, water or glaciers, or disintegration （瓦解） caused by alternate
freezing and thawing （冻融交替 / 循环） in cracks in the rock. The
resultant soil particles retain the same composition as that of the parent
rock. Particles of this type are described as being of ‘bulky’ form and their
shape can be indicated by terms such as angular, rounded, flat and
elongated.
The nature of soils
The particles occur in a wide range of sizes, from boulders （卵石）

down to the fine rock flour formed by the grinding action （磨削作用）
of glaciers. The structural arrangement of bulky particles is described as
single grain, each particle being in direct contact with adjoining particles
without there being any bond between them. The state of the particles can be
described as dense, medium dense or loose, depending on how they are
packed together.
The nature of soils
The chemical process results in changes in the mineral form of the parent
rock due to the action of water (especially if it contains traces of acid or
alkali), oxygen and carbon dioxide. Chemical weathering results in the
formation of groups of crystalline particles （结晶颗粒） of colloidal
size （ /kə‘lɒɪdəl/ ，胶体颗粒尺寸） (<0.002 mm) known as clay
minerals.
The nature of soils
The clay mineral kaolinite, for example, is formed by the breakdown of

feldspar （长石） by the action of water and carbon dioxide. Most clay
mineral particles are of ‘plate-like’ （似片状的） form having a high
specific surface （比表面积） (i.e. a high surface area-to-mass ratio) with
the result that their structure is influenced significantly by surface forces.
Long ‘needle-shaped’ particles can also occur but are comparatively rare.
Particle size analysis
The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining the

percentage by mass of particles within the different size ranges. The
particle size distribution （粒径分布） of a coarse soil （粗粒土，
>0.075mm ） can be determined by the method of sieving （筛分）
.
The soil sample is passed through a series of standard test sieves having
successively （相继地） smaller mesh sizes. The mass of soil
retained in each sieve is determined and the cumulative percentage by
mass passing each sieve is calculated.
The particle size distribution of a soil is presented as a curve on a

semilogarithmic [‘semi,lɔɡə’riðmik ] （半对数的） plot, the ordinates （纵坐
标） being the percentage by mass of particles smaller than the size given by
the abscissa [æb'sɪsə] （横坐标） . The flatter the distribution curve the larger
the range of particle sizes in the soil; the steeper the curve the smaller the size
range.
A coarse soil is described as well graded （级配良好） if there is no excess

of particles in any size range and if no intermediate sizes are lacking. In
general, a well-graded soil is represented by a smooth, concave (/kɒnˈkeɪv/)
distribution curve.
A coarse soil is described as poorly graded (a) if a high proportion of the

particles have sizes within narrow limits (a uniform soil) or (b) if particles of
both large and small sizes are present but with a relatively low proportion of
particles of intermediate size (a gap-graded or step-graded soil) （间断级配
的） .
Plasticity of fine soils
Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine soils （细粒

土） , the term （术语） plasticity describing the ability of a soil to
undergo unrecoverable deformation （不可恢复变形） without
cracking or crumbling （破碎） .
In general, depending on its water content (defined as the ratio of the

mass of water in the soil to the mass of solid particles), a soil may exist in
one of the liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid states.
If the water content of a soil initially in the liquid state is gradually reduced,
the state will change from liquid through plastic and semi-solid,
accompanied by gradually reducing volume, until the solid state is reached.
The water contents at which the transitions （过渡、转变） between states
occur differ from soil to soil.
In the ground, most fine soils exist in the plastic state. Plasticity is due to the
presence of a significant content of clay mineral particles (or organic
material) in the soil.
The void space between such particles is generally very small in size with the
result that water is held at negative pressure by capillary tension （毛细张
力） . This produces a degree of cohesion between the particles, allowing the
soil to be deformed or moulded.
The upper and lower limits of the range of water content over which the
soil exhibits plastic behaviour are defined as the liquid limit (wL) and the
plastic limit (wP), respectively. The water content range itself is defined
as the plasticity index (IP).
The natural water content (w) of a soil relative to the liquid and plastic
limits can be represented by means of the liquidity index (IL).
The transition between the semi-solid and solid states occurs at the
shrinkage limit, defined as the water content at which the volume of the
soil reaches its lowest value as it dries out.
The apparatus for the liquid limit test consists of a penetrometer fitted with a
30° cone of stainless steel, 35mm long: the cone and the sliding shaft to which
it is attached have a mass of 80 g.
The test soil is mixed with distilled water to

form a thick homogeneous paste and stored
for 24 h. Some of the paste is then placed in a
cylindrical metal cup, 55mm internal
diameter by 40mm deep, and levelled off at
the rim of the cup to give a smooth surface.
The cone is lowered so that it just touches the

surface of the soil in the cup, the cone being
locked in its support at this stage. The cone is
then released for a period of 5 s and its depth
of penetration into the soil is measured.
A little more of the soil paste is added to the cup and the test is repeated until a
consistent value of penetration has been obtained. (The average of two values
within 0.5mm or of three values within 1.0 mm is taken.)
The entire test procedure is repeated at least four times 30
using the same soil sample but increasing the water content
Penetration value （ mm ）
each time by adding distilled water. The penetration
values （贯入值） should cover the range of
3
approximately 15–25 mm, the tests proceeding from the
drier to the wetter state of the soil.
10 100
Cone penetration is plotted against water content and the
0.3
best straight line fitting the plotted points is drawn. The
liquid limit is defined as the percentage water content (to Water content （ % ）
the nearest integer) corresponding to a cone penetration of

20 mm.
Phase relationship
Soils can be of either two-phase （两相） or three-phase （三相）

composition. In a completely dry soil there are two phases, namely the solid
soil particles and pore air. A fully saturated soil is also two phase, being
composed of solid soil particles and pore water. A partially saturated soil
（非饱和土） is three phase, being composed of solid soil particles, pore
water and pore air. The components of a soil can be represented by a phase
diagram.
Phase relationship
The water content (w), or moisture content (m), is the ratio of the mass of
water to the mass of solids in the soil.
Phase relationship
The degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water to the total
volume of void space. The degree of saturation can range between the limits
of zero for a completely dry soil and 1 (or 100%) for a fully saturated soil.
Phase relationship
is the ratio of the volume of voids to the

The void ratio (e) volume of solids.
The porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the

total volume of the soil.
The void ratio and the porosity are inter-related.

Phase relationship
The bulk density (r) （体积密度） of a soil

is the ratio of the total mass to the total volume. Convenient
units for density are kg/m3 or Mg/m3. The density of water (1000
kg/m3 or 1.00 Mg/m3) is denoted by r w.
The unit weight (g) of a soil

is the ratio of the total weight (a force) to the
total volume.
Phase relationship
is the ratio of particle density to the

The specific gravity （比重）
density of water.
Review
Please give the definition for the following variables.
•w
•e
•n
•Sr
•r
•g
•Gs
• 矿物颗粒 • Mineral particles
• 风化 • Weathering
• 有机物 • Organic matter/organism
• 残积土 • Residual soil
• 运积土 • Transported soil
• 冻和融 • Freezing and thawing
• 裂缝 • Crack
• 母岩 • Parent rock
• 密的 / 中密的 / 松散的 • Dense/medium dense/loose
• 酸/碱 • Acid/alkali
• 粘土矿物 • Clay minerals
• 比表面积 • Specific surface
• 粒径分布 • Particle size distribution
• 粗粒土 / 细粒土 • Coarse soil/fine soil
• 筛分法 • Method of sieving
• 流动状态 / 可塑状态 / 半固态 / 固 • Liquid/plastic/semi-solid/solid state
态 • Transition
• 过渡 • Liquid limit/plastic limit/shrinkage limit
• 液限 / 塑限 / 缩限 • Plasticity index/liquidity index
• 塑性指数 / 液性指数 • Apparatus
• 仪器 • Stainless steel
• 不锈钢 • Distilled water
• 蒸馏水 • Paste
• 糊状物 • Internal diameter
• 内径 • Rim
• 边缘 • Penetration value
• 贯入值 • Two-phase/three-phase
• 两相 / 三相 • Degree of saturation
• 饱和度 • Void ratio/porosity
• 孔隙比 / 孔隙率 • Specific gravity
• 比重
Thank you for your attention

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Basic Characteristics of Soils

University of Shanghai for Science and Technology

• The nature of soils 土的本质

To the civil engineer, soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented

If the products of weathering remain at their original location they

The particles occur in a wide range of sizes, from boulders （ 卵 石 ）

The clay mineral kaolinite, for example, is formed by the breakdown of

The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining the

The particle size distribution of a soil is presented as a curve on a

A coarse soil is described as well graded （级配良好） if there is no excess

A coarse soil is described as poorly graded (a) if a high proportion of the

Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine soils （ 细 粒

In general, depending on its water content (defined as the ratio of the

The test soil is mixed with distilled water to

The cone is lowered so that it just touches the

The entire test procedure is repeated at least four times 30

the nearest integer) corresponding to a cone penetration of

Soils can be of either two-phase （ 两 相 ） or three-phase （ 三 相 ）

is the ratio of the volume of voids to the

The porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the

The void ratio and the porosity are inter-related.

The bulk density (r) （体积密度） of a soil

The unit weight (g) of a soil

is the ratio of particle density to the

Please give the definition for the following variables.

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The particles occur in a wide range of sizes, from boulders （卵石）

Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine soils （细粒

Soils can be of either two-phase （两相） or three-phase （三相）