Planned Sequence

• Start: examine classical waves

– Traveling wave solutions
– Standing wave solutions

• Transition → matter waves (i.e wave

mechanics)
– Use de Broglie relation to do transformation
 1d Classical Wave Equations
Let Ψ(x,t) describe the amplitude of some wave phenomena (e.g. transverse
amplitude, as for a string; compressions and rarefactions, as for a sound
wave). Wave motion along the x direction is described by:
 2 ( x.t ) 1  2 ( x.t )
 2 , where v is the speed of the wave disturbance
x 2
v t 2

Some examples:
• String (derivable using Newtonian physics) tranverse
wave
1 T
 is transverse string amplitude; 2  0
v 0
• Sound (derivable using Newtonian physics)
 kT
v , where m gas molecular mass
m
• Electromagnetic waves (derivable from Maxwell equations)
compression
 describes E or B fields (E  B); v = c wave
 Traveling Wave Solution
 2 2 
 ( x, t )  A  sin  x  t     A  sin  k  x    t    ( = phase const.)
  T 
• (- sign) Correct description of wave traveling to positive x: In a
travel time Δt any portion of the wave advances Δx, with total sine
argument remaining constant => k∙ Δx - ω∙ Δt = 0; Δx/Δt = ω/k = λ/T
= v. So, the argument describes propagation of each piece of the
wave at speed v.
• Bottom line check: Is it really a valid solution? Put it in the wave
equation and check it out:
 2 ( x.t ) 1  2 ( x.t )
 2 . Check for  ( x, t )  A  sin  k  x    t   
x 2 v t 2
2 1 2
 A  sin  k  x    t      2 2  A  sin  k  x    t    
x 2  v t
2
 k A  sin  k  x    t      2 A  sin  k  x    t   
2

v
 2 T 
Two sides are equal if v    -- true
k 2  T
Solutions for different wavelengths possible

 1 ( x, t )  A1  sin  k1  x  1  t  1  ,
 2 ( x, t )  A2  sin  k2  x  2  t  2 
each work separately.
1. First solution requires that ω1/k1 = λ1/T1 = v.
2. Second solution requires that ω2/k2 = λ2/T2 = v.

• Interesting possibility for physical waves traveling through some

medium. In a medium such as a real string, actual traveling wave
speed can depend on frequency (wavelength); the medium is
then said to be dispersive. The effective propagation of EM waves
through a medium shows similar effects.
 Wave equation is linear: linear combination
of separate solutions also a solution
 1 ( x, t )  A1  sin  k1  x  1  t  1  ,  2 ( x, t )  A2  sin  k2  x  2  t  2 
each work separately.
• What about the combination Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 ?
 2 ( x.t ) 1  2 ( x.t )
 2 . Check for    1  2
x 2 v t 2
2 1 2
 A  sin  k  x    t     A  sin  k  x    t       A1  sin  k1  x  1  t  1   A2  sin  k 2  x   2  t   2  
x 2 
2 
v 2 t 2 
1 1 1 1 2 2 2

2 2
 k12 A1  sin  k1  x  1  t  1   k 2 2 A2  sin  k  x    t  2    12 A1  sin  k1  x  1  t  1   22 A2  sin  k 2  x  2  t  2 
v v
 2 T1 1  2 T2 2
Two sides are equal if 1   = v and 2   =v
k1 2 1 T1 k 2 2 2 T2
-- each part the same as for the single component solution

• Works => Any linear combination of separate solutions will

also be a valid solution.
 Standing Wave Solutions
Look at these two solutions in combination:
 1 ( x, t )  A  sin  k  x    t    ,  2 ( x, t )  A  sin  k  x    t   
• They describe equal size waves, one traveling in the +x direction and
the other in the –x direction. Let’s examine the new combination
solution Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2:
 1  2  A  sin  k  x    t     A  sin  k  x    t   
 A  sin  k  x    t     sin  k  x    t    
 A  sin  k  x  cos    t     cos  k  x  sin    t     sin  k  x  cos    t     cos  k  x  sin    t    
 2 A  sin  k  x  cos    t   

• sin(kx) describes a spatial

sine oscillation – fixed spatial
position for the nodes
• multiplier cos(ωt + φ) describes a time
dependent change of the amplitude
factor
 Standing Wave Modes as a
Function of Boundary Conditions
• For visualization, consider a string of length L with both ends held
(the boundary conditions):

• Easy-to-see pattern for the allowed normal nodes: λ = 2L, L, 2L/3…

for n = 1,2,3,… => λn = 2L/n.
• Here’s the same conclusion from an analytical approach:
possible standing wave solution:  ( x, t )  A  sin( kx) cos(t   )
boundary conditions:  ( x  0, t )  0;  ( x  L, t )  0
First BC satisfied but second requires that sin( kL)  0  kL  n (n  1, 2,...)
2
i.e. L  n  n  2 L

 Decomposition of an arbitrary standing
wave on the string
ω1 = 2π/T1 ω2 = 2ω1 = 4π/T1= 2π/T2
• A standing wave must satisfy the
boundary conditions but does not have
to be a pure normal mode. cos(ω1t) cos(ω2t)
• Any “frozen snapshot” in time of the net
amplitude can be expressed in terms of
contributions from various normal
modes.
• Because each normal mode has a
different time dependence, there could
be “squiggly” behavior of the standing
waveform over time.
• Complex states in quantum system
have a similar description in terms of
“basis” quantum states, also with Example from McQuarrie. The overall
time dependence of all the components
analogous “squiggly” behavior over results in net traveling wave motion.
time.
Note: The figure here is a reworked version of
McQuarrie Figure 2-4. There seem to be some
errors in the figure as it appears in the book.
 Classical wave equation equation:
standing wave solution
We expect that stable time
independent matter wave
 2 ( x.t ) 1  2 ( x.t ) solutions to correspond to
1. start:  2 standing wave solutions.
x 2
v t 2

2. specialize to standing wave solution:

Ψ(x,t) = Φ(x)∙sin(ωt + φ)
2 1 2
2 
 ( x) sin  t      2 2  ( x) sin  t    
x v t
 2 ( x) 1
x 2
sin   t    
v

2
 ( 
x )  2
sin  t   

d 2 ( x)  2
2
 2  ( x)  0 (full derivative because single variable)
dx v
2 v d 2 ( x) 4 2
Use   2    2  ( x)  0 ← Use ω2 = 4π2v2/λ2
 dx 2

 Conversion to matter wave equation

1. Classical particle: E = p2/2m +V(x). Convert to matter

wave using de Broglie relation:
h h
p  2m  E  V ( x )     
p 2m  E  V ( x ) 

2. Put de Broglie λ into classical wave equation:

d 2 ( x) 4 2 d 2 ( x) 2m
 2  ( x)  0   2  E  V ( x)  ( x)  0
dx 2
 dx 2

 2 d 2 ( x) h
  V ( x ) ( x )  E  ( x ) (  )
2m dx 2
2

Time independent Schrodinger equation--the matter wave

equation appropriate for solving time independent problems!
 Time Independent Schrodinger
Equation
2 2
  ( x)  E ( x) where H
   d
• It has an eigenvalue form: H 2
 V ( x)
2m dx

operator eigenvalue
For an operator A acting on a function f(x) (1d case), the general
result is  A f  x  g  x

where g is some new function. In the special case of an eigenvalue

equation, A f  x   a  f  x  ; a  numerical value

• The operator H
 is linear
You should use this
An operator A is linear if 
definition to verify that H
A  c f  c f   c A f  c A f is a linear operator.
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

c1 , c2 are constants; f1 , f 2 are functions

 
The H Operator
• Decompose to separate kinetic and
potential operator terms:
2 2 2 2
  T  V    d    d   V ( x)
H  V ( x )  T ; V
2m dx 2 2m dx 2

• Deduce form of momentum operator

p2
Since classically T  , we expect that in operators
2m
p 2  2
d 2
2
T   , where T and p  p  p are operators.
 
2
2m 2m dx
It is easy to verify that a form for p consistent with the above is
p  i d  i  for multiple coordinate variables
dx x
 
The T Operator
• Consider the case of a particle-in-the box
eigenfunction Φ(x) = A∙sin(kx), k = 2π/λ:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 d  d  k  k
T   x    2
  
x   A 2
sin  
kx  A sin  
kx    x
2m dx 2m dx 2m 2m

 h / 
2 2 2
k p2 h
Eigenvalue is   , since p 
2m 2m 2m 
 p
The Operator
• Consider the case of a particle-in-a-box
eigenfunction Φ(x) = A∙sin(kx), k = 2π/λ:
p  x   i d   x    Ai d sin  kx    Ai k cos  kx 
dx dx

no momentum operator eigenvalue for standing

wave solution!

Classically, there is no net momentum to the left or right. From a Heisenberg

uncertainty analysis, there would not be a definite single value of momentum.
 Effect of Order of Application of Multiple
Operators

• Commutativity in arithmetic operations?

a∙b = b∙a; a + b = b + a, True in general where a and b are numbers

• Commutativity of matrix multiplication*?

For arbitrary matrices A, B : AB  BA sometimes, not always.

• Commutativity of operators*?
d 
Not always. Consider A  i , B  x, function f  x  :
dx
 f   i d   x  f  i d  xf   i f  i x df
AB
 
 dx  dx dx
 A f   x   i d  f  ix df
B *In quantum mechanics,
 
 dx  dx
operators can be
 AB  f B  A f !
represented by matrices.
 Handwave “Derivation” of a Schrodinger
Equation Form Including Time Dependence-1
• Previous “derivation” route for time independent form

 classical  x  
de Broglie
  quantum  x 

• New “derivation” route for time dependent form

– Assumed general form: H   ( x, t )  i  ( x, t )
t
– For time independent case, require that   x, t     x  f  t 
– Put Ψ into assumed Schrodinger equation; verify that the
equation for Φ is the time independent form
 Handwave “Derivation” of a Schrodinger
Equation Form Including Time Dependence-1
  ( x, t )  i   ( x , t )    2
d 2
• Assumed form: H where H  V ( x)
t 2m dx 2

• Ψ(x,t) = Φ(x)∙f(t) for time independent (standing wave) solution:

f (t )
i
  ( x)  i ( x) f (t )  H ( x) 

   ( x) f (t )   i    ( x) f (t )   f (t ) H
H t
t t  ( x) f (t )
• In final form LHS depends only on x; RHS only on t. This can only
happen if they are equal to the same constant – call it E (we’ll see
that it’s the previous E):
f (t )
  ( x) i
H t
E
 ( x) f (t )
LHS : H   ( x)  E ( x) -- once again the time independent form
f (t )
RHS : i  Ef (t )  f (t )  e iEt / 
t