Two Dimensional Flow of Water Through Soil

CHAPTER FOUR
TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH Soil

Flow around a sheet pile wall, under masonry dams
and through earth dams, flow is not one dimensional
but two dimensional, which means that the velocity
components in the horizontal and vertical directions
vary from point within the cross section of soil mass.
The two dimensional flow of water through soils is
described by Laplace’s equation. The popular form of
Laplace’s equation for two-dimensional flow of water
through soils is
cont’
where H is the total head and kx and kz are the

coefficients of permeability in the X and Z directions.
Laplace’s equation expresses the condition that the
changes of hydraulic gradient in one direction are
balanced by the changes in the other directions
Cont’
The following assumptions are made.
a) The soil is fully saturated and Darcy’s law is valid.
b) The soil mass is homogeneous and isotropic (except
special cases).
c) Both soil grains and pore fluid are incompressible.
d) Flow conditions do not change with time, i.e. steady
state conditions exist.
Cont’
The solution of Laplace’s equation gives two sets of

orthogonal curves known as equipotential lines and
stream lines, which describes the flow pattern and
energy dissipation and constitutes flow nets.
Flow nets
Cont’
• The direction of v is in the direction of decreasing
total head.
• A water particle enters soil (pervious media) at A and
flow through it along the path shown and exits it at
point B. likewise all along boundary surface aa'
number of water particles will enter pervious media
and exits boundary surface bb', traveling along
different paths. These path traced by water particles
are called flow paths or flow lines.
Cont’
• Water particles enters boundary aa' with an energy
equivalent of total head of water H1 and leaves boundary
bb', gradually. Along various flow lines we can imagine /
identify points having equal energy for example 0.9 (H1-H2),
0.8 (H1- H2), 0.3 (H1-H2) … etc. the line joining these points
of equal energy / potential are known as equipotential
lines.
• A combination of families of these equipotential and flow
lines is called a flow net.
• The head difference between two equipotential lines is
called a potential drop or head loss.
Cont’
• Head lost between successive equipotential is the same, say Δh and
• Quantity of flow in each of the flow path is the same, say Δq.
A flow net must meet the following criteria:
The boundary conditions must be satisfied.

boundary conditions apply.
a) Side ‘aa'’ and ‘bb'’, of the permeable layer are
equipotential.
b) Because aa' and bb' are equipotential lines, all flow lines
intersect them at right angles.
c) The boundary of impervious layer dd', is a flow line, and so
is the surface of the sheet pile wall acb.
d) The equipotential lines intersect ac and dd' at right angles.
Cont
• Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.

• The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be
curvilinear squares.
• The quantity of flow through each flow channel is constant.
• The head loss between each consecutive equipotential line is
constant.
• A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
• An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential
line
Interpretation of Flow Nets
• the total head lost
• H = Δh x Number of equipotential drops
H = Δh( Nd)
• The total seepage quantity
q = Δq(Nf)
• According to darcy’s law v = ki and q = kiA
Cont’
• It is convenient to construct a flow net in which all the ‘fields’
in a flow net are elementary squares, that is a/b = 1
For that condition:- q = kHNf/Nd
Where Nf is the number of flow channels (number of flow
lines minus one). The ratio Nf/Nd is called the shape factor.
Both Nf and Nd can be fractional. In the case of anisotropic
soils (different permeabilities in X and Z directions), the
quantity of flow is:-
Hydraulic Gradient
• You can find the hydraulic gradient over each square by
dividing the head loss by the length, L, of the cell, that is
• You should notice that L is not constant. Therefore the

hydraulic gradient is not constant. The maximum hydraulic
gradient occurs where L is a minimum, that is,
• Where Lmin is the minimum length of the cells within the flow
domain. Usually, Lmin occurs at exit points or around corners.
Static Liquefaction
• The soil state at which the effective stress is zero is
called static liquefaction.
• A structure founded on a soil that statically liquefies

will collapse. Liquefaction can also be produced by
dynamic events such as earthquake.
Critical Hydraulic Gradient
• The hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass
(essentially, coarse grained soils) to static
liquefaction. When we get:
• In designing structures that are subjected to steady

state seepage, it is absolutely essential to ensure that
the critical hydraulic gradient cannot develop.
Pore Water Pressure Distribution
• The pore water pressure at any point j is calculated as
follows:
1. Select a datum (for example, choose the downstream
water level as the datum.)
2. Determine the total head at j: where
is the number of equipotential drops at point j.
3. Subtract the elevation head at point j from the total head
Hj to get the pressure head. For point j below the datum
(recall the datum is assumed to be the downstream water
level), let the elevation head hz is –z. The pressure head is
then
Cont’
4. The pore water pressure is

Uplift Forces
• Lateral and uplift forces due to groundwater flow

can adversely affect the stability of structures such as
dams and weirs. The uplift force per unit length
(length is normal to the XZ plane) is found by
calculating the pore water pressure at discrete points
along the base (in the X direction) and then finding
the area under the pore water pressure distribution
diagram, that is,
Cont’
• Where Pw is the uplift force per unit length, uj is the

average pore water pressure over an interval and
n is the number of intervals.
• It is convenient to use Simpson’s rule to calculate Pw:
Flow Through Earth Dams
• We need to ensure that the pore water pressure at

the downstream end of the dam will not lead to
instability and the exit hydraulic gradient does not
lead to piping. The major exercise is to find the top
flow line called the phreatic surface. The pressure
head on the phreatic surface is zero
• phreatic surface can be approximated by a parabola
with corrections at the points of entry and exit.
Cont’
Cont’
•The procedure to draw a phreatic surface within an earth dam,
1.Draw the structure to scale.
2.Locate a point A at the intersection of a vertical line from the
bottom of the upstream face and the water surface, and a
point B where the waterline intersects the upstream face.
3.Locate point C, such that BC=0.3AB.
4.Project a vertical line from C to intersect the base of the dam
at D.
5.Locate the focus of the basic parabola. The focus is located at
the toe of the dam.
Cont’
6. Calculate the focal distance where b is the
distance FD and H is the height of water at the upstream face.
7. Construct the basic parabola from
8. Sketch in a transition section BE.
9. Calculate the length of the discharge face, a, using
Cont’
• For use
And
(a) Measure the distance TF, where T is the intersection

of the basic parabola with the downstream face;
Cont’
b) for the known angle read the corresponding
factor from the chart;
(c) find the distance
10. Measure the distance a from the toe of the dam
along the downstream face to point G.
11. Sketch in a transition section, GK.
12. Calculate the flow using
Cont’
• If the downstream slope has a horizontal drainage blanket the flow is
calculated using
A horizontal drainage blanket at the toe of an earth dam

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CHAPTER FOUR

TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH Soil

where H is the total head and kx and kz are the

The solution of Laplace’s equation gives two sets of

The boundary conditions must be satisfied.

• Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.

• You should notice that L is not constant. Therefore the

• A structure founded on a soil that statically liquefies

• In designing structures that are subjected to steady

4. The pore water pressure is

• Lateral and uplift forces due to groundwater flow

• Where Pw is the uplift force per unit length, uj is the

• We need to ensure that the pore water pressure at

(a) Measure the distance TF, where T is the intersection

A horizontal drainage blanket at the toe of an earth dam

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