Bilingualism, Cognition, Transfer and Learning Strategies
Bilingualism, Cognition, Transfer and Learning Strategies
Bilingualism, Cognition, Transfer and Learning Strategies
BILINGUALISM,
COGNITION, TRANSFER
AND LEARNING
STRATEGIES
Muhammad Ricky Ramadhan 17202244021
Ardian Cahya Pratama 17202244023
Yusrina Qurrota’Ayun 17202244037
Rifka Hayu Indraswari 17202244039
01 Varieties of Bilingualism 05 Strategies for Second-Language
Rifka Hayu Indraswari
Production
Ardian Cahya Pratama
02 Is Bilingualism Beneficial or
Detrimental? 06 Strategies for Becoming a
Rifka Hayu, Muhammad Ricky
Better Second-Language Learner
Ardian Cahya Pratama
03 Sequential and Simultaneous
Learning Situations 07 Teaching Reading in a Bilingual
Yusrina Qurrota’Ayun
The languages that are most involved in research in bilingualism are mostly
ones that are speech based .
Proficiency in The Second Language
• Proficiency in the second language may be evaluated with respect to a variety of
variables, including knowledge of syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation(signing or writing
for non-speech).
• A bilingual's language skills may vary across modalities as he or she may write well in one
language but speak better in the other.
• The bilingual's second language is of lower proficiency than the first.
Bidialectalism
• We wouldn't want to regard as bilingual someone who knows two dialects of the same
language, e.g, British Yorkshire English and American Midwestern English. While these
dialects differ in significant respects.
• Thus many of the concerns that are raised for bilingualism can be extended to
bidialectalism as well.
Is Bilingualism
Beneficial or Detrimental?
Bilingualism and Society
• Whether the parents of the children may have in some way affected the outcome
• The attitude and motivation of the parents regarding bilingualism must be matched
• Researchers are allowed to randomly assign children to monolingual or bilingual
programmes regardless of the wishes if their parents
• Only few parents would be willing to have their children’s education determined by
chance assignment to groups for the purpose of some research study
In this section, we will discuss about negative reports and positive reports of
learning second language at an early age.
Negative reports
• Goddard (1917) conducted a test involving 30 recently arrived adult immigrants. It was
found that less than half of the adult immigrants could provide only 60 words on word-
fluency, much below the 200 words that 11-year-old American children could provide. In
other hand, Goddard used such research to petition Congress to enact more restrictions to
limit immigration to America.
• Saer (1922, 1923) also found similar results in comparison of monolinguals and bilinguals in
Wales. Saer concluded that bilinguals’ thinking processes were confused by the use of two
languages.
• Languages plays a great role in determining the outcome of scores on the intelligence test.
A low level of language knowledge will result in a low score and hence a low level of
intelligence. Other methodological problems with these early studies include the failure to
equate groups on socio-economic status. Typically monolinguals were from higher socio-
economic classes while bilinguals were from lower social classes. In the 1960s and 1970s
began to use tests in both of the bilinguals’ languages and to control for all sorts of other
variables including socio-economic background.
Positive reports :
• In the early 1960s was the beginning of more adequate test began to use. The work of
Lambert showed the way in use of proper methodology.
• Peal and Lambert (1962) conducted a test. The subjects were equally in the same level of
socio-economic background. The result showed the bilinguals had significant higher scores
on 15 out of the 18 measures of intelligence. Peal and Lambert concluded that bilingualism
results in greater mental flexibility and abstract thought. Rather than the two languages
causing ‘confused thinking’, bilingualism improved thinking.
• Bain and Yu (1980) compared monolingual and bilingual young children in different parts of
the world. The results on some cognitive performance tests showed the bilinguals to be
superior to the monolinguals, in addition to their having acquired two different languages.
• Hakuta (1986) challenges the Bain and Yu, the parents of the bilinguals may have had more
advantageous beliefs and attitudes and this could have biased the findings. The results are
indicative of an intellectual advantages for the bilinguals.
Conclusion regarding effect on intelligence
There is no evidence that early bilingualism will harm the intellectual or cognitive,
development of the child in any way. Besides, it may even benefit the child
intellectually.
Sequential and Simultaneous
Learning Situations
Two conditions a person may become
bilingual
Young children can learn a second language faster than the first
language
It is often that young children can learn an entire language in year or less. Theoretically,
it must be the case that the learning of a second language is facilitated by the prior
learning of the first language. as the child gets older, the time needed for second
language acquisition grows longer.
Simultaneous learning
One person speaks one language only, or, one person speaks
two language
a. One-person-uses-one-language-only (1P-1L)
When the mother speaks one language (e.g. Spanish) while the fathers speaks
another (e.g. English). Each person uses one language exclusively.
b. Same person uses two different languages (1P-2L)
When the mother uses both Spanish and English and the father does the same. The
two languages are mixed by each parent.
Advice to parents
It is highly recommended for parents who have bilingual abilities and have decided to
raise their children in a bilingual situation to use the language in the 1P-1L fashion right
from the start.
Consciousness and Learning
In Ianco-Worrall’s (1972) research, the result shows that:
• The bilingual children were more semantically oriented than the
monolingual children
• The bilingual children were more likely to be aware of the
psycholinguistic concept.
• The bilingual children understand that a spoken word has no real
relation to an object and is only an arbitrary name for it.
Transfer Effects of Language 1
on the Learning of Language 2
First-language and Second-Language
Relations Affect Learnability
• The nature of the similarity relationship between the first and second
languages will determine the rate of learning. Studies in Finland provide
evidence that it is easier to learn a second language that is similar to the
first (Ringbom, 1978; Sjoholm, 1979).
• The greater the similarity between two languages in terms of their syntax,
vocabulary, and sound system, the more rapid the rate of acquisition in the
two languages.
Facilitation Occurs even between Very
Different Languages
There is some sort of commonality among languages that is separate from the usual
similarity measures which are used in comparing languages. Such commonalities
would consist of such principles as:
1. words have a morpheme structure and a phoneme structure, words combine into
phrases and into sentences and clauses.
2. Basic constituents must be ordered in some way, and
3. Such operations as substitution, deletion, and addition are involved.