Environmental Systems

Prof.Dr. Mohamed Adrawi

 Environment
• Environment is derived from the word Environner which mean
“encircle or surround”.
• Environmental Studies deals with every issue that affects an organism.
• So, Environment refers to surroundings which vary from place to
place and continent depending upon Physiography, Topography,
Climate and the available Natural resources.
 Environment
• Importance of Environment:
• 1.Environment is concerned with day – to – day interaction with the surroundings with
which human being is closely associated.

• 2. Environmental Science is related to many branches of Sciences

• 3. Environment is concerned with the importance of wild life and its protection.
• 4. Environmental Science explains the significant role of biodiversity in establishing
ecological balance.
• 5. Environmental Science gives information relating to Population growth, Population
explosion and impact on Population growth.
• 6. Environmental Science also gives information about water conservation, watershed
management and the importance of water.
 Environment
• The environment (surroundings ) consists of:
• living organisms ( biotic ) and
• non-living things ( abiotic ) such as physical components of wind,
temperature, rainfall, water, humidity , light, soil etc and chemical
components of C,H,N,K,P,S etc..(in-organic components) and
carbohydrates, proteins (organic components).
 Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-
organisms in an area functioning together with all of the non-living
things.
• An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all the
characteristics to support life. Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem,
desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban ecosystem are some of
the examples for ecosystems. An ecosystem varies in sizes from a few
square kms to hundreds of square kms. Similarly an ecosystem may
be temporary like a fresh pool / agriculture field or permanent like a
forest / ocean.
 Ecosystem
• Kinds of Ecosystems: Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
• Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries to control
biotic community as well as physico chemical environment.
• Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.
• Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are maintained naturally.
• Terrestrial Ecosystem:
This ecosystem relates to biotic components living on the land. Vegetation dominates the community
and the types of vegetation affect the climate, soil structure & a rapid exchange of O2, water & CO2
• Aquatic Ecosystem:
This ecosystem relates to biotic community living in water. The types of water (fresh water, saline water,
polluted water) dominate and affect the pH of water, depth of water, temperature of water etc. Aquatic
ecosystem has been sub-divided into fresh water and saline water based on the quality of water.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
The Structure of an ecosystem consists of:
• Abiotic structure includes the non-living things of the ecosystem such as physical factors (soil, temperature, light & water)
and chemical factors consisting the inorganic compounds (N, C, H, K, P,S) & organic compounds ( carbohydrates, proteins).
• Biotic structure includes plants, animals & microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic component. These
organisms have different nutritional behavior and status in the ecosystem and are known as
• Autotrophs ( Producers)
• Heterotrophy (Consumers)
• Micro-consumers (Decomposers) based on how they get their food. Hence, the structure of an ecosystem comprises:
• (a) The composition of biological community species (plants, animals, microorganisms), their population, life cycles,
distribution in space etc.

• (b) The quantity and distribution of non-living things such as soil; water etc.
• (c) The range or intensity of conditions like temperature, light, rainfall, humidity, wind & topography plays a major role in
the structure of ecosystem.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem means how an ecosystem works/ operates
under natural conditions. The rate of biological energy flow ; the rate of
nutrient cycles ie Bio- Geo-Chemical cycles and Ecological regulation
( means regulation of organisms by Environment and regulation of
Environment by organisms ) plays a major role in the function of an
ecosystem.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• 1. Autotrophic components (Producers):
• Autotrophic means self nourishing. Since these organisms are self nourishing, they are also called
producers.
Eg: Algae, Green plants, Bacteria of photo synthetic. Green plants prepare their food themselves by making
use of CO2 present in the air & water in the presence of sunlight through the process of photosynthesis.
CO2 + 2H2O → CH2O + O2 + H2O
( Carbon dioxide ) ( Water ) ( Carbohydrates ) ( Oxygen ) (Water )
A few micro-organisms which can produce organic matter (nutrients) to some extent through oxidation of
certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight known as chemo autotrophs.
Eg: In the Ocean depths, where there is no sunlight, chemo-autotrophic bacteria make use of the heat
generated by the decay of radioactive elements for preparation of their food.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• 2. Hetero-trophic components (Consumers):
Hetero-trophic means dependent on others for nourishment directly or indirectly upon the utotrophs
(producers) for their food. These are of the following types:
• a. Herbivores (Primary consumers):
These animals feed directly on living plants or remains of plants. Eg: Rabbits, Deer’s, Insects.
• b. Carnivores (secondary consumers):
These carnivores (flesh eating) feed on the herbivores. Eg: Snakes, birds, Lizards, fox.
• c. Tertiary consumers (or) Tertiary carnivores:
These feed on the primary & secondary consumers. Eg: Lions, Tigers.
• d. Omnivores:
These consumers feed on both plants & animals. Eg Human beings, Birds (hawk)
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• 3. Decomposers or Micro consumers:
They feed on organic compounds of dead or living plants and animals
for their food and energy. They absorb some of the products from
decomposed material and release organic compounds (nutrients)
making them available to producers.
Eg: Bacteria, Fungi, and Flagellates. The decomposers are also called as
“Saprotrophs”.
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• Food Chain:
The transfer of food energy from the producers (plants) through a series of organisms (Herbivores,
Carnivores) successively with the repeated activities of eating and being eaten is known as food chain.
In an ecosystem(s), one organism is eaten by the second who in turn is eaten by the third and so on...
This kind of feeding relationship is called food chain.
• Examples of food chain:
1. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Frog→ Snake→ Hawk.
2. Grass→ Mouse→ Snake →Hawk.
3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Man.
4. Grass→ Mouse→ Hawk.
5. Plant leaf →Caterpillar →Sparrow →Hawk.
Food Chain
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• Food Chain:
• Types of Food Chains
In nature, there are two basic types of food chains viz:
1. Grazing food chain
2. Detritus food chain
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• Food Chain:
• Types of Food Chains
1. Grazing food chain
• Grazing food chain: This food chain starts with green plants (primary producers) and
goes to herbivores and on to carnivores.
1. Phytoplankton’s→ Zooplanktons →Small fish→ Tuna.
2. Phytoplankton’s→ Zooplanktons→ Fish→ Man.
3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Fox→ Tiger.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• Food Chain:
• Types of Food Chains
2. Detritus food chain:
This food chain starts from dead organic matter (dead leaves/ plants / animals) and goes
to Herbivores and on to Carnivores and so on…..
• Leaves or dead plants→ Soil mites→ Insects→ Birds.
• Dead organic matter→ Bacteria → Insects.
• Dead leaves → Algae→ Fish→ Man.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem:
• FOOD WEB:
Food web is a net work of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each
trophic level. (A trophic level refers to an organism’s position in the food chain).
1. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Hawk
2. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Lizard→ Hawk
3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Hawk
4. Grass→ Mouse→ Hawk
5. Grass→ Mouse→ Snake→ Hawk
Food webs
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
• Ecological pyramids were first studied by a British ecologist Charles Elton (1927).
• An Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation consisting various trophic levels
with producers forming the base and top occupy the carnivores.
• In an ecological pyramid the huge number of tiny individuals form at the base and a
few large individuals occupy the top / apex .
• This formation is known as ecological pyramid. Hence, all producers (micro & macro
plants) belong to the I trophic level; all primary consumers belong to II trophic level
and organisms feeding on these consumers belong to the III trophic level and so on.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
There are three types of Ecological pyramids :
1. The pyramid of Numbers (showing population).
2. The pyramid of Biomass (showing total mass of organisms).
3. The pyramid of energy (showing energy flow).
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
• 1. The pyramid of Number:
• It shows the relationships among the producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic
levels in terms of their number. Mostly the pyramid of number is straight (or) upright with number of
individuals in successive higher trophic levels goes on decreasing from base to apex.
• The maximum number of individuals occurs at the producers’ level. They support a small number of
herbivores. The herbivores, in turn, support a fewer number of primary carnivores and so on….. Top
carnivores are very few in number.
• For Example:
(1) In a grass land ecosystem: Grass→ Grasshoppers→ Frogs→ Snakes→ Peacock / Hawk.
(2) In a pond ecosystem: Phytoplankton→ Zooplankton→ Fish→ Crane
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
• 1. The pyramid of Number:
The pyramids may be inverted in a few cases:
• A single plant may support the growth of many herbivores and each herbivore in turn
provides nutrition to several parasites which support many hyper-parasites. Thus,
from the producer towards consumers, there is a reverse position i.e., the number of
organisms gradually shows an increase making the pyramid inverted in shape.
• In a Forest ecosystem: Tree→ Birds / deer →Parasites→ hyper parasites
• Tree→ Birds→ eagle
The pyramid of Number
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
2. The Pyramid of Biomass:
The amount of organic matter present in environment is called biomass. In pyramids of biomass, the
relationship between different trophic levels is mentioned in terms of weight of organisms. The
pyramid may be upright for grassland ecosystem and inverted for pond ecosystem.
• Example: Vegetation produces a biomass of 1000 kg. Out of this 100 kgs of biomass for herbivores,
which in turn only 10 kg of biomass for primary carnivores that gives rise 1 kg of biomass for second
order carnivores and so on…
• 1000 kgs 100 kgs 10 kgs 1 kg
• Vegetation Herbivores primary carnivores Secondary carnivores
• Hence, a vegetarian diet can support a larger population than a Non – vegetation diet.
 Ecosystem
• Structure & Function of Ecosystem:
• Function of ecosystem:
• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
3. The pyramid of energy:
The amount of energy trapped per unit time and area at different trophic levels of a food chain
with producers forming the base and the top carnivores at the apex is called pyramid of energy.
The energy content is generally expressed as K cal /m2 / year or KJ /m2 / year.

• Large Fish ---126 KJ / m2 / year

• Small Fish ----840 – 126 KJ / m2 / year
• Zooplankton ---- 7980 KJ / m2 / year
• Phytoplankton (producers) --- 31080 KJ / m2 / year
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Biomass & Energy Pyramids
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem
• Energy flow /Transformation of energy in Ecosystem
The movement of energy (or) transfer of energy through a series of
organisms in an ecosystem from the external environment and back to
the external environment again is known as energy flow.In the
universe, the main source of energy is SUN that produces energy in the
form of light or solar radiation.
 Ecosystem
• Energy flow /Transformation of energy in Ecosystem
• Different ecosystems in the world receive variable quantities of solar
energy depending upon their location on the globe.
• The other chief factors that control the amount of solar energy
received by an ecosystem are Latitude and Longitude ; Slope; Cloud
formation; Pollutants in the atmosphere
 Ecosystem
• Energy flow /Transformation of energy in Ecosystem
The transformation of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of
energy from the sun by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is
combined with Hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to
produce carbohydrates (CH2O) and the energy is stored in the high energy
bonds of Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP). Herbivores obtain their energy by
consuming plants or plant products, Carnivores eat herbivores and micro-
organisms consume the droppings and carcasses (dead bodies).
Energy flow and Nutrient cycling
 Ecosystem
• Energy flow /Transformation of energy in Ecosystem
In an ecosystem, the utility of energy is taken place in the following
manner:
• The sun provides heat to maintain the required temperature in which
proper Physical and chemical processes can take place. Certain
bacteria obtain useful energy by oxidation of a few elements such as
sulpher and iron.
Energy flow in Ecosystem
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
In every ecosystem sunlight or solar radiant energy is accepted by
producers (green plants) and the energy doesn’t recycle through an
ecosystem. But nutrients like Carbon; Nitrogen; Oxygen, Hydrogen;
Water, Sulphur, Phosphorous etc move in circular paths through biotic
and abiotic components and they are known as Bio-geochemical cycles.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• The Water Cycle Or Hydrologic Cycle:
Due to the solar heat, water evaporates or water is lost to the
atmosphere as vapor from the seas / oceans which is then precipitated
back in the form of rain, snow, frost etc.. The evaporation and
precipitation continues for ever, and thereby a balance is maintained
between the two. This process is known as Hydrologic cycle.
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• Carbon Cycle:
All life is based on the element carbon and hence carbon is the main
constituent of living organisms.. Carbon may be present in most organic
matter from fossil fuels to the complex molecules (DNA & RNA). In fact,
the lithosphere is only 0.032% carbon by weight. In comparison, oxygen
and silicon make up 45.2% and 29.4% respectively of the earth’s surface
rocks.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• Carbon Cycle:
Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis whereas animals emit CO2 during
respiration. Animals obtain all their carbon through their food and thus, all carbon
in biological systems ultimately comes from plants (autotrophs). The dead bodies
of plants and animals as well as the body wastes are decomposed by micro-
organisms which release carbon in the form of CO2. Even plant debris if buried a
longer time cause for the formation of coal, oil, natural gas and these releases
carbon when they burned. Otherwise, the carbon in limestone or other sediments
released to the atmosphere when they are subducted (using forces) or undergo
chemical reactions. The weathering of rocks also contribute CO2 into the
environment
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• OXYGEN CYCLE:
Oxygen is present in CO2, CH2O (carbohydrates) and H2O. Oxygen is
released into the atmosphere by plants during photosynthesis and
taken up both autotrophs and Heterotrophs during respiration. All the
oxygen in the atmosphere is biogenic ie., it was released from water
through the process of photosynthesis. Because of the vast amounts of
oxygen in the atmosphere, even if all photosynthesis cease it would
take 5000 million years to strip out more or less all oxygen.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• NITROGEN CYCLE:
Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex
organic molecules like Amino acids; Proteins ; Nucleic acids ; Enzymes;
Chlorophyll etc.. The largest reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere
where it exists as a gas mainly N2. But atmospheric nitrogen is not
utilized directly. However, nitrogen gas undergoes many changes in the
nitrogen cycle like: Nitrogen Fixation, Ammonification, Nitrification.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• NITROGEN CYCLE:
• Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of free nitrogen into biologically acceptable form is referred to as Nitrogen Fixation.
• N2 + 2(O) −electric discharge → 2 NO
• Nitrogen gas oxygen radical nitrogen oxide In physico chemical process; nitrogen combines with oxygen during
lightning or electrical discharges in the clouds and produces different nitrogen oxides (N2O5). These nitrogen
oxides get dissolved in rain water and react with mineral compounds to form Nitrates and Nitrogenous
compounds on the earth.
• N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3
• 2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca (NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
• Nitrogen fixation is also carried out by biological process by means of blue – green algae in the oceans.
• Examples: Rhizobium bacteria fix nitrogen in the roots of Leguminous plants
• Blue – green algae ( Nostoc, Anabena ) fix Nitrogen.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• NITROGEN CYCLE:
• Ammonification:
When plants or animals die or release waste, the nitrogen is returned
to the soil as ammonia. The bacteria ( nitrite bacteria ) in the soil and in
the water which take up ammonia and convert it to Nitrite ( NO2).
Another bacteria ( Nitrate bacteria ) take nitrite and convert it to
Nitrate (NO3) which can be taken up by plants to continue the cycle.
 Ecosystem
• Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles:
• NITROGEN CYCLE:
• Nitrification:
Means conversion of ammonia into nitrite by some of the bacteria
such as Nitrosmonas, Nitrococcus in oceans and soils.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Phosphorus Cycle

The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains

phosphorus in the form of phosphates. When rocks are weathered,
minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are
absorbed by the roots of the plants. Herbivores and other animals
obtain this element from plants. The waste products and the dead
organisms are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing
phosphorus. Unlike carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of
phosphorus into atmosphere.
Phosphorus Cycle
 Ecosystems
• AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:
Eco system that exists in water is known as aquatic ecosystem. Water is
the primary requirement for life in biological community. The aquatic
ecosystems range from a small pond to a large ocean. Varying quantities
of nutrients are carried from terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem by the
movement of water and deposited in aquatic ecosystems. The life in
aquatic communities is influenced mostly by physical factors like:
• Water depth Amount of light
• Temperature Salinity of water
• Amount of oxygen and Carbon dioxide
 Ecosystems
• AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:
Aquatic ecosystems are broadly classified into:
• fresh water ecosystem
• marine water ecosystem.
• In some regions, the marine and fresh water environments overlaps
creating “Estuaries”.
• Fresh Water: Eg: lakes, ponds streams, rivers water
• Marine: Eg: salt lakes, seas, oceans
• Estuaries: Eg: water bodies mix of fresh & sea
 Ecosystems
I. Ponds & Lake Ecosystems:
A pond is a small area of still water, especially is artificial whereas a lake is a
large area of water body and the water is natural. The life span of ponds range
from a few weeks or months and whereas the life span for lakes depend upon
their location, size and depth. Depending upon temperature, the upper part
of the lake becomes warm and is called eplimnion and the lower part of the
lake becomes cold which is called as hypolimnion. These two zones are
separated by thermocline zone which acts as a barrier to exchange of
material / nutrients within the pond. During rainy season, entire water body
gets same temperature due to mixing of water while in non-rainy season very
small amount of mixing occurs by surface waves due to wind blow
 Ecosystems
• Ponds & Lake Ecosystems:
• The non-living ( abiotic ) components of a pond include Heat; light,
pH value of water; organic compounds ( water, CO2, O2, Ca, N, P).
• The living (biotic) components Autotrophs or producers ( green
plants, bacteria, rooted plants of Trapa, Typha, Sagi Haria ),
Consumers ( Herbivores, insects and large fish ) and micro cosumers
( bacteria, fungi).
 Ecosystems
• 2. Stream & River Ecosystems:
Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. Out of all natural
ecosystems, rivers are the most intensively used ecosystems by man. The
organization of river and stream ecosystem include:
• Abiotic Components: include volume of water, speed of water flow,
dissolved oxygen content, temperature etc. The energy flow usually the
organic matter which is being imported from adjacent terrestrial
ecosystems.
• Biotic Components: include Producers ( algae, grass, amphibians );
consumers ( leaches, water insects, snails, fishes, crocodiles, reptiles ) and
Decomposers ( bacteria, fungi, protozoa).
 Ecosystems
3. Ocean or Marine Ecosystems:
The marine environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and
minerals. The major oceans of the world are Atlantic; Pacific; Indian, Arctic and
Antarctic. These are deep and life extends to all its depths. The sea water contains
salt content in the form of NaCl and rest are Mg, Ca, K . Temperature ranges from 0o
to 30o C and pressure of 1 ATM at surface and 1000 ATM at bottom of oceans. The
ocean ecosystem consists of the following;
• Biotic components of Producers (phytoplankton, marine plants, Ruppia, zostera,
Halophile are true marine angiosperms), Consumers of Molluscas, fishes and
Decomposers of bacteria and Fungi.
• Abiotic components include Na, Cl, Mg, Ca, Sulphur, Dissolved oxygen content,
light, temperature, pressure variations etc.
 Ecosystems
4. Estuarine Ecosystem:
Estuary is the area at the mouth of the river joins the sea and
continents. It has a free connection with the open sea and is thus
strongly affected by tidal action. Estuaries are mixed with fresh water
from land drainages. River mouth, coastal bay etc are the examples for
estuarine ecosystem. Estuaries are one among the naturally fertile in
the world.
 Ecosystems
4. Estuarine Ecosystem:
components of estuarine ecosystem are:
• Abiotic components: Physical factors such as salinity, temperature, tidal activity etc are variable in
estuaries when compared to the sea or ocean.
• Biotic components include Producers, consumers and Decomposers. Producers: Three major life
forms of Autotrophs play a significant role in grass production. They are
• (a) Macrophytes ( sea weeds, sea grass, Spartina,Thalassia, marsh grass, mangrove trees )
• (b) Phytoplankton
• (c) Benthic flora (algae).
• Consumers include a number of zooplankton, oysters, crabs and some species of fishes capable of
surviving in estuarine conditions form primary, secondary, tertiary consumers of the estuarine
ecosystem. Decomposers include bacteria and fungi which actively take part in the breaking down
the complex and dead organic matter (Fungi of actinomycites ).
 Ecosystems

• FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forest is a type of terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem. It consists of trees,
shrubs or woody vegetation occupying an extensive area of land.
Forests are important renewable resources. A different types of forests
are seen on this earth. The type of forest depend upon its geographical
location and environment factors ( Temperature and moisture ) that
influence the kind of vegetation that occur in an area.
 Ecosystems
• FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• Types of forests:
• 1. Savannas: These forests develop where a seasonal rainfall occurs. The grass lands of North Africa are known as savannas.
• Eg: North Africa, America, Burma & India.
• 2. Tropical forests: These exits in areas of good rainfall (>200cm per year) with uniform warm temperature. The Soils found
in there forests are old, acidic in nature & poor in nutrients.
• Eg: Amazon rain forest (South America, India).
• 3. Deciduous forests (or) Temperate forests: Deciduous forests consists of broad leaved trees & occur where rainfall is
plenty (750 - 1000 cms per year).
• Eg: Europe & North-East America.
• 4. Coniferous forest: These occur in areas with long winters with heavy snowfall. In other words, where moisture is limited
& rainfall is low. Herbivores (animals eating plants) & insects exist in these forests.
• Eg: Moscow.
• (5) Tundra: These are the large flat Arctic regions of Northern Europe, Asia and North America where no trees grow and
where the soil below the surface of the ground is always frozen. The growing season is short and plants grow very slowly.
 Ecosystems
• FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• The characteristic features of a forest ecosystem:
Abiotic components include inorganic and organic compounds and dead organic debris. Further,
the natural light conditions are different in forests due to complex stratification in the vegetation.
Biotic components include Producers, consumers and Decomposers.
.Producers: These are plants and trees and produce the food through photosynthesis. The dominant
species of trees are Quercus, Acer, Betula, Thuja, Picea, Abies, Pinus, Cedrus etc.
• Consumers: The primary consumers are Ants, beetles, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders, deers, squirrels
etc. The secondary consumers are Snakes, birds, lizards, foxes etc are the examples. The tertiary
consumers are lion, tiger, hawk etc.
• Decomposers include micro organisms like bacteria, fungi etc. Consume the dead or decayed
bodies.
• Tropical rain forests
 Ecosystems
• DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
Deserts occur in regions when the annual rainfall is in the range of 250 to 500
mm and evaporation rate is high. Deserts occupy about 30% of land area on
the globe. Deserts are found 30 above north and below south of the equator.
Deserts are characterized by extremely hot days and cold nights. The largest
deserts are found in the interiors of continents where moisture bearing winds
do not reach. The desert soils has very little organic matter but rich in minerals.
The desert plants have adapted to the dry conditions and conserve water by
having few or no leaves. Desert ecosystem is characterized by scanty flora and
fauna. The organisms which with stand the extreme temperatures can survive
here. Desert animals are usually small in size and come out during the nights
for food.
 Ecosystems

• DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
• Human impact on deserts:
• Slow rate of growth of vegetation if topsoil is eroded due to heavy vehicle transportation across the
desert. Desert cities, depletion of ground water, land disturbance, pollution from mining, storage of
toxic wastes are some of the human activities that cause damage.
• Abiotic components include temperature, rainfall, soil, water etc plays a major role to control the
desert ecosystem.
• Biotic components include producers ( shrubs, bushes, grasses, a few trees and plants namely Cacti,
Acacias, Euphorbias ). Consumers of insects, reptiles, rodents of rats & rabbits; birds, camels which
are capable of living under desert conditions. Decomposers include Bacteria, Fungi due to poor
vegetation and the less quantity of dead organic matter.
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• The word resource means a source of supply. The
natural resources include water, air, soil, minerals,
coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the
resources are classified based on quantity, quality, re-
usability, men’s activity and availability.
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• Classification of Resource
Exhaustible Resources:
These resources have limited supply on the earth and liable to be
exhausted if used indiscriminately.
Inexhaustible Resources:
These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and
they are not likely to be exhausted by human activities.
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• Classification of Resource
Exhaustible Resources:

• (1) Renewable resources: These resources have the capacity to reappear

themselves by quick recycling with a reasonable span of time.
Eg: forests, wildlife.
• (2) Non-renewable resources: Resources that exist in a fixed quantity in
earth’s crust are called non–renewable resources. These resources lack the
ability of recycling and replacement.
Eg: minerals, fossile fuels etc..
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• Classification of Resource
Inexhaustible Resources:
These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the
nature and they are not likely to be exhausted by human
activities.
Eg: solar energy, wind power, tidal power, rain fall, atomic
energy etc…
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• Water Resources
.Water is the main constituent of hydrosphere & is renewable resource.
.Water is next to air that man requires for his survival and existence.
.Water is needed for daily use by organisms, for irrigation, industrial electricity production and domestic
use.

.Hence, water is an important resource in all economic activities ranging from agriculture to industry. The
distribution of water resources is not uniform over the earth’s surface.
• .About 97% of it is salt water in the seas & oceans, 2.6% is trapped in polar ice caps & glaciers. Only 0.4%
is available as fresh water. Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms as .
1. Ground water
2. Surface water
 NATURAL RESOURCES
• Water Resources
• Uses of water:
1. Domestic use: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing, washing
clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian
standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. Industrial use: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining, textile,
leather industries.
3. Public use: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks,
flushing streets; jails etc.
4. Fire use: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
5. Irrigation: To grow crops this is the main sources for food.
6. Other uses: Hydro electric power generation requires water.
• Effects of over use of ground water:
Over use of groundwater has following effects.
1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking,
irrigation and domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of
ground water in various regions leading to lowering of water table &
drying of wells.
 Ecology

• Ecology = how organisms interact with one another and with their
environment
• Environment = biotic (other organisms) and abiotic ( physical factors)
 Ecology
• levels of ecological organization:

• Population - group of individuals of the same species occupying a common geographical

area
• Community - two or more populations of different species occupying the same geographical
area Populations and communities include only biotic factors
• Ecosystem - a community plus its abiotic factors, e.g. soil, rain, temperatures, etc.
• Biosphere - the portion of the earth that contains living species. It includes the atmosphere,
oceans, soils and the physical and biological cycles that affect them
 
 Ecology of population

• Population = group of individuals of the same species occupying a

common geographical area
• Ecology of Population: branch of ecology deals with population
dynamics.
 Ecology of population

• Habitat - where a species normally lives

 Ecology of population
• Characteristics of populations - Each population has certain characteristics:
• Population size = number of individuals making up its gene pool
• Population density = number of individuals per unit of area or volume, e.g.
persons/square mile
• Population distribution = the general pattern in which the population members are dispersed
through
its habitat, may be: Clumped (most common), Uniformly dispersed (rare), or Randomly dispersed
• Age structure defines the relative proportions of individuals of each age: Pre-reproductive,
and Post-reproductive
• Population size and growth
Population size is dependent on births, immigration, deaths, and emigration
• Zero population growth designates a near balance of births and deaths 
 Ecology of population

• Exponential growth: If birth and death rates of a population remain

constant they can be combined into one variable r = net reproduction
per individual per unit time (rate of increase)
 Ecology of population

• Population growth may be represented mathematically as: G = rN Where G = population growth

per unit time, r = rate of increase and N= the number of individuals. When plotted against time a graph
in the shape of a J will be obtained denoting exponential growth, i.e. one variable increases much faster
than the other
• As long as per capita birth rates remain even slightly above per capita death rates, a population will
grow exponentially - with ever-increasing rates and shorted "doubling times"
• It took 2 million years for the world's human population to reach 1 billion, yet it took only 12 years to
reach the fifth billion
• If a population lives under ideal conditions it may display its biotic potential - the maximum rate of
increase under ideal conditions. Few populations live under ideal conditions because a number of factors
limit their growth
 Ecology of population

• Limiting factor - any resource that is in short supply, e.g. food,

minerals, light, living space, refuge from predators, etc.
 Ecology of population

• Carrying capacity = maximum number of individuals of a species or

population a given environment
can sustain. Each habitat or area can only support so many individuals
 Ecology of population
• Logistic growth
• Early on populations will exhibit very rapid growth but as they near the
carrying capacity they will level
off is called logistic growth and it produces an S shaped curve
• Logistic growth is density dependent, i.e. the growth is affected by the
density of individuals.
For example - 26 reindeer were introduced onto an island off the coast of
Alaska in 1910. Within 30 years the herd increased to 2,000. However,
overgrazing reduced the food supply and the population
crashed to 8 animals by 1950