Introduction

 Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a

periodic waveform on its output without an external
signal source.
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous
signal of some type without the need of an input.
 These signals serve a variety of purposes.
 Communications systems, digital systems
(including computers), and test equipment make use
of oscillators
 Application of Oscillators
Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
 Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF
signals in a receiver;
 Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
 Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
 Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.

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Oscillators
 Oscillators are circuits that generate periodic
signals
 An oscillator converts DC power from the power
supply into AC signal power spontaneously -
without the need for an AC input source

Repetitive ramp waveform.

 Introduction
 An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from
a dc voltage.
 The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the
output to maintain the oscillations.
 The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to
generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave
Sine wave

Square wave

Sawtooth wave
 Types of oscillators
1. RC oscillators
 Wien Bridge
 Phase-Shift
2. LC oscillators
 Hartley
 Colpitts
 Crystal
3. Unijunction / relaxation oscillators
 Linear Oscillators

A linear oscillator is formed by connecting an amplifier and

a feedback network in a loop.
 Linear Oscillators
+ V
Vs  Amplifier (A) Vo
+
Positive Vf Frequency-Selective
Feedback Network ()
Feedback

A linear oscillator contains:

- a frequency selection feedback network
- an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity

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 Basic Linear Oscillator
+ V
Vs  A(f) Vo
+

Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)

Vo  AV  A(Vs  V f ) and V f  Vo

Vo A
 
Vs 1  A

| A | 1 (Barkhausen Criterion)
A  0
9
 Basic principles for oscillation
 In general A and  are functions of frequency and
thus may be written as;

Vo A s 
Af  s   s 
Vs 1  A s  β  s 
A s  β  s  is known as loop gain
 Basic principles for oscillation
 Writing T  s   A s  β  s  the loop gain becomes;
A s 
Af  s 
1  T  s
 Replacing s with j
A jω
A f  jω  
1  T  jω
 and T  jω  A jω  β  jω
 Basic principles for oscillation
 At a specific frequency f0

T  jω0   A jω0  β  jω0   1

 At this frequency, the closed loop gain;

A jω0 
A f  jω0  
1  A jω0  β  jω0 
will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output
for zero input signal - oscillation
 Basic principles for oscillation
 Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of
frequency f0 is;

A jω0  β  jω0   1
 This is known as Barkhausen criterion.
 The frequency of oscillation is solely determined by
the phase characteristic of the feedback loop – the
loop oscillates at the frequency for which the phase
is zero.
 Practical Design Considerations
 Usually, oscillators are designed so that the loop gain
magnitude is slightly higher than unity at the desired frequency
of oscillation
 This is done because if we designed for unity loop gain
magnitude a slight reduction in gain would result in oscillations
that die to zero
 The drawback is that the oscillation will be slightly distorted (the
higher gain results in oscillation that grows up to the point that
will be clipped)
 RC Oscillators
 RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to
frequencies of 1 MHz or less.

 The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss

phase-shift
RC Phase-Shift Network
RC Phase-Shift Network
RC Phase-Shift Network
RC Phase-Shift Network
 LC Oscillators
 Use transistors and LC tuned circuits or crystals in
their feedback network.
 For hundreds of kHz to hundreds of MHz frequency
range.
 Examine Colpitts, Hartley and crystal oscillator.
 Hartley Oscillator
 The Hartley oscillator is
almost identical to the
Colpitts oscillator.
 The primary difference
is that the feedback
network of the Hartley
oscillator uses tapped
inductors (L1 and L2) and
a single capacitor C.
C
 Hartley Oscillator
 In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown ,
the resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias
condition for the circuit.
The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby
providing any signal degeneration. This also
provides temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c.
and to provide an a.c. path.
 Hartley Oscillator
The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high
impedance to high frequency currents which means
it shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c.
Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps
a.c. currents out of d.c. supply source
The frequency determining network is a parallel
resonant circuit which consists of the inductors
L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C.
 Hartley Oscillator
The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil
L1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the
other to emitter via Ce. So, L2 is in the output
circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively
coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.
The circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a
Hartley oscillator. The tank circuit is shunt fed in this
circuit. It can also be a series-fed.
 Hartley Oscillator
When the collector supply is given, a transient
current is produced in the tank circuit. The
oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c.
voltage across L1.
The auto-transformer made by the inductive
coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining the
frequency and establishes the feedback.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase
shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the
transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between
the input and output voltages.
 Hartley Oscillator
This makes the feedback positive which is essential
for the condition of oscillations.
When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater
than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

the frequency of oscillation:

1
o 
 L1  L2  C
 Hartley Oscillator
Advantages
Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can
be used as an auto-transformer.
Frequency can be varied by employing either a
variable capacitor or a variable inductor.
The amplitude of the output remains constant over
a fixed frequency range.
 Hartley Oscillator
Disadvantages
It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.
Harmonic distortions are present.
Applications
It is used to produce a sinewave of desired
frequency.
Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
 Crystal Oscillator
 Most communications and digital applications require the
use of oscillators with extremely stable output.
output Crystal
oscillators are invented to overcome the output fluctuation
experienced by conventional oscillators.
 Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz
wafer held between two metal plates and housed in a a
package as shown in Fig. (a) and (b).
 Crystal Oscillator
 Piezoelectric Effect
 The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
 When a changing an alternating voltage is applied across
the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied
voltage. In the other word, the frequency of the applied ac
voltage is equal to the natural resonant frequency of the
crystal.
 The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration.
This phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect.
 Crystal Oscillator
 Characteristic of Quartz Crystal
 The crystal can have two resonant
frequencies; R
 One is the series resonance frequency f1 CM
which occurs when XL = XC. At this L
frequency, crystal offers a very low
impedance to the external circuit where C
Z = R.
 The other is the parallel resonance (or
antiresonance) frequency f2 which occurs
when reactance of the series leg equals
the reactance of CM. At this frequency,
crystal offers a very high impedance to
the external circuit
 Crystal Oscillator
 The crystal is connected as a series element in the
feedback path from collector to the base so that it is
excited in the series-resonance mode

BJT
FET
 Crystal Oscillator
 Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the smallest that
causes the crystal provides the largest positive feedback.
 Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias
circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, RE
to avoid degeneration.
 The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac
signal from entering the dc supply.
 The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance at circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc flow between collector and
base.
 The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency of
the crystal and is given by: 1
fo 
2 LCC
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