Recirculating Aquaculture:

Tank Production Systems

A Review of Current Design Practice
Recirculating systems provide an alternative production method when temperature, salinity,
disease, water supply, land availability, or exotic species /environmental regulations prevent
more cost effective alternatives.

The technologies that support tank based culture

must address five key issues;
1. clarification,
2. biofiltration,
3. circulation,
4. aerations, and
5. degassing.
Tanks
Sizing of fish tanks is based upon the density of fish, the primary controller of system stability.
The fish density also ultimately controls the feed application rate.

A very low fish density (<1/8 pound of fish per gallon or <15 kg/m3) is commonly used for
broodstock and display applications where the stock is considered extremely valuable.
Fingerling, baitfish, and ornamental fish applications are typically sized with moderate loading
(<1/4 pound of fish per gallon or <30 kg/m3).
Higher fish densities are common in the production (growout) of food fish. A half a pound of fish
per gallon is a widely accepted design number. Densities of about 1 pound per gallon (120
kg/m3) of water can be achieved, but, often display unstable water quality and are thus more
prone to disease and growth issues.
 Circular Tanks
The dominance of circular tanks in the industry stems from their
inherent structural and hydrodynamic nature.
Circular designs dominate broodstock and fingerling
applications. Many growout facilities use circular tanks.

The walls of a circular tank are maintained in tension by water pressure. In essence, the walls are self-supporting.
This allows circular tanks to be constructed out of relatively thin polyethylene plastic or sturdier fiberglass materials.
The hydrodynamics of a circular tank facilitate the rapid removal of suspended solids.

A circular tank with a center drain is naturally good at solids removal. Even a small circulation will tend to accumulate
solids in the center where radial velocities are the lowest. Solids removal from a circular tank can be enhanced by
center sloping bottoms or by centering a dual drain system while optimizing the tank depth to diameter ratios.
 Rectangular Tanks
From an engineering perspective, the other extreme in tank
design is rectangular. These tanks are often seen with a 45
degree bevel providing some rounding of the tank corners.
The rectangular tank is prone to poor solids movement. But,
rectangular tanks are about 20 percent more efficient in floor
space utilization and are more easily harvested than circular
tanks.

The inherent structural weakness of a square or rectangular design can be overcome by careful engineering when
tanks are fabricated out of concrete or fiberglass. Earth reinforcement by partial burial can also alleviate most
structural concerns presented by a rectangular tank design. As a result rectangular tanks are widely used in
ornamental fish, baitfish, soft crab, and tilapia industries.
Solids movement in any rectangular tank requires consideration. Serious water quality problems can occur if solids
accumulate in the bottom of a long rectangular tank. Water movement induced by recirculating water or aeration
systems can be used to accelerate solids movement to the clarifier. In the ornamental fish industry, a secondary
species (typically a Plecostomus or Aeneus catfish) is often used as a sweeper under mid or top water fish to move
solids. In the case of tilapia, the high density of fish tends to re-suspend solids facilitating their movement.
 Raceway Tanks
Raceway tanks blend the advantages of the circular and
rectangular tanks and are most often seen in marine
culture.
A third wall is centered along the tanks length to facilitate
controlled circulation of water.

This circulation is highly effective at movement of solids with natural collection points occurring just downstream of
the center panel ends.
The rounded ends are generally compatible with quick moving species that have difficulty navigating sharp corners.
Although raceway tanks would appear to be the perfect compromise between circular and rectangular, the third
wall adds cost and can interfere with the ease of harvesting.
Water Circulation System
Recirculation flow rates vary among design strategies with 5 to 10 gallons per
minute per pound of daily feed ration (42 to 84 lpm/ kg/d) being typical.
Generally, the water pump or air blower that drives the circulation loop is the
major source of RAS energy consumption.
Failure of the circulation system leads to a rapid deterioration in RAS tank water
quality, thus, the method selected must be cost effective and reliable.

Three common type of pumping systems:

1. centrifugal,
2. axial flow and
3. airlift pumps.
Centrifugal pumps
Typically, a centrifugal pump is used to circulate waters. These pumps
operate from the thrust generated when water in the pump head is spun
at high speed.
The design of most centrifugal pumps is optimized for moderate to high
pressure operation. In most cases, the pump will be placed outside the
tank, but in some smaller systems a submersible pump may be used.
Centrifugal pumps are readily available for virtually any flow range and
salinity.
In most RAS applications, a centrifugal pump with high flow and low lift
capacity is favored to minimize energy consumption.
Older RAS designs were based upon recirculation pressures of the order
of 25 feet (8 m), whereas, most modern RAS designs target recirculating
pressure of about 10 feet (3 m).
Axial flow pumps
Axial flow pumps are used on larger scale RASs because they have better
pumping efficiencies than centrifugal pumps under low lift conditions
(<10 feet or 3 m).
Axial flow pumps are driven by a propeller mounted on a motor shaft
within a vertical pipe. These pumps are robust and highly resistant to
clogging. In recirculating applications, the propeller is submerged so
pumping can be initiated without priming.
Axial pumps tend to be more expensive than the more common
centrifugal pump, and are rarely used unless the system recirculation
rates reach several hundred gallons per minute (>2,500 lpm). In these
larger systems, lower operation costs may offset higher initial capital
expense.
Airlift pumps
Airlift pumps operate off the density difference between column of water
and a column of air/water mixture.
Driven by an external air blower the airlift pump physically consists of a
vertical segment of PVC pipe with an air injection port.
Airlift pumps (Fig. 2) are capable of moving large volumes of water at
extremely low lifts. Large diameter airlifts (>8 inches or 20 cm) have
recirculation capabilities of several hundred gallons per minute (2,000 to
3,000 lpm), with lifts <18 inches (46 cm).
The air injected to move the water also aerates and degasifies circulating
water, thus, airlift systems are viewed as highly energy efficient as
compared to most pumped systems. However, the height water can be
lifted by an airlift is limited, so careful attention must be given to head loss
as the system is being designed.
Aeration (oxygen addition)
The aeration process deals with the transfer of oxygen into the water.
Oxygen is a relatively rare component in in water with 10 ppm being considered
a high concentration. Most warm water recirculating systems operate with an
oxygen level in the range of 5 to 6 parts per million; whereas, cooler
recirculating systems can operate above 8 parts per million.
Both the fish and bacteria rapidly consume oxygen. Under high loads, the RAS
aeration system must be capable of replacing all oxygen in the system every 20
to 30 minutes at peak feeding rates.
Blown Air
The most basic of aeration techniques is blowing air through a submerged
air stone that disperses a fine stream of bubbles through the water at a
pressure typically between 48 and 70 inches (1.2 to 1.8 m).
Air pressure is generated by a linear air pump (100 cubic feet per minute
or >2800 lpm).
As a rule of thumb, 3 cubic feet per minute of air is required for each
pound of daily food ration (187 lpm/kg/day) under commercial growout
conditions (Sastry et al., 1999; Malone and Beecher, 2000).

Blown air is an aeration technique of choice for smaller RAS, the simplicity
of the operation overwhelmingly drives the choice. Blown air systems are
also widely used for commercial production of tilapia where the system's
ability to simultaneously strip carbon dioxide is considered a benefit.
Aerating with Diffuser Hose (Blown Air)
Porous stones or hard plastic air diffusers have been traditionally used to
deliver air in the form of small bubbles to enhance oxygen transfer rates.
All air delivery devices are subject to physical clogging as scale (calcium
carbonate) occurs adjacent to the bubble formation as carbon dioxide
stripping locally raises the pH.
The diffuser hose is flexible and easily cleaned by hand; whereas, air stones
must be routinely soaked in muriatic acid to dissolve scale. Thus, labor
savings are encouraging increasing the use of diffuser hose in blown air
systems.
The length of diffuser hose must be compatible with the air delivery
requirements. Forcing excessive amounts of air through a diffuser hose (or
air stone) will increase the aeration rate but will cause excessive
backpressures on the air blower.
Surface Aerators
Surface aerators have a motor driven propeller that is mounted (floated) so
the propeller turns upward throwing a cascade of water. A common feature
in pond culture, surface aerators are usually used to supplement blown air
systems during periods of peak loading or high temperature.
Water spray heads or nozzles can provide aeration levels similar to that of
small mechanical aerators. Small bait or soft crab tanks can be effectively
aerated with one or two inclined nozzles.
Aeration is achieved by oxygen entering the droplets and diffusing from the
bubbles into the tank. However, this type of aeration is rarely used in larger
scale commercial fish production.
An open packed column is also a reasonably effective aeration device. A
packed column consists of column 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 m) tall loosely filled
with large and porous media. Water is re-aerated as the water cascades
downward.
The cascading effect can bring oxygen levels to near saturation in a 3 to 4
feet (0.9 to 1.2 m) fall. Smaller media have a tendency to biofoul (clog with
bacteria) and generally display poor oxygen exchange.
Carbon Dioxide Removal
Degassing is similar to aeration although carbon dioxide is a highly soluble gas, whereas, oxygen
is a poorly soluble gas. The earth’s atmosphere is over 20 percent oxygen, yet contains only
about 0.04 percent carbon dioxide.
Under normal conditions, surface water will contain about 0.5 parts per million of carbon
dioxide. In a poorly designed RAS, the respiration activities of both fish and bacteria produce a
tremendous amount of carbon dioxide, elevating water levels to the 50 to 100 parts per million
range. The high carbon dioxide level lowers pH and causes nitrifying bacteria to cease to
function; resulting in a rise in nitrite or ammonia levels.
Carbon dioxide is usually removed by blown air or by unpressurized packed columns.
Blown air
Production building will assure that carbon dioxide levels are controlled. Most carbon dioxide
problems with blown air systems occur during the winter when operators move the blowers
inside to conserve heat while simultaneously, limiting building ventilation.
The end result is an interior atmosphere that is enriched in carbon dioxide. Since levels are high
in the building, carbon dioxide diffuses into the water.
The end result is a RAS with low pH and high ammonia/nitrite levels.
Operators with multiple blowers mitigate this impact by placing some blowers in the building
and some outside, saving money from heating while the biofilters adapt to a moderately low pH.
Packed columns
The unpressurized packed column, or the spray tower, is widely
used to strip carbon dioxide. A high rate of air (usually from
outside the building) is counter-flowed against the falling water
by a blower. These units are design to maximize the gas to
liquid ratio, generally blowing 0.67 to 1.33 cubic feet per
minute per each gallon of water passed through the column.
When properly designed, these simple devices are highly
effective at carbon dioxide removal.
Solids removal
About half the feed consumed by fish, crustaceans, and reptiles are excreted as solids.
These solids rapidly break down into fine particles that are classified by size into four categories:
1. settable solids (>100 microns),
2. total suspended solids (1 to 100 microns),
3. colloids (0.1 to 1 microns), or
4. dissolved solids.

The total suspended solids (TSS) category contains a large fraction of organic material that is
measured as volatile suspended solids (VSS). The VSS content is important since it promotes
bacterial growth that is associated with water quality and odor problems.
Biofiltration
The biofiltration process removes dissolved wastes from the water by bacterial
action.
Bacteria can be either grown in suspension (suspended growth) or in a fixed film
attached to a physical substrate (a gravel, sand, or plastic media). The fixed film
processes have proven more reliable and are most often used to support RAS
water treatment objectives. However, it should be noted that there have been
some notable successes with suspended growth in the production of shrimp and
tilapia where the animals and bacteria are cultured in the same tank.
Biofiltration
Perhaps the most important function of the biofilter is to remove dissolved
organic material (sugars, starches, fats, proteins) that are excreted by the fish.
This is a very fast and efficient process that is frequently overlooked in literature
favoring the slower nitrification process.
The nitrification process is the conversion of the toxic nitrogen form, ammonia,
to the relatively nontoxic nitrate. A product of protein metabolism, ammonia, is
excreted through the gills of fish.
Ammonia buildup in combination with a slightly elevated pH will rapidly prove
fatal to most fish.
 Fluidized bed
A fluidized bed is a bed of sand that is suspended by an upflowing current of water. The sand
bed has very high surface area to support biofilm development. Each sand particle is suspended
in the water column, gently bumping into adjacent sand grains providing a means for abrasion of
excessive biofloc.
Expertly designed, the fluidized bed is capable of achieving the highest volumetric conversion
rates (amount of ammonia converted per unit of media).
In growout systems, a coarse sand fluidized bed is capable of providing nitrification rate in the
range of 1 to 2 pounds of daily feed ration per cubic foot of sand (16 to 32 kg/m3 /day). Fine
sand beds are noted for their ability to maintain very low ammonia and nitrite levels (<0.2 mg/L-
N).
 Bead filter

Bead filters form the second class of biofilters. These filters use small plastic
beads in a floating bed to support bacterial growth. This class of filters can be
broadly divided into two subclasses.
◦ The first utilizes the floating bead bed in a static mode that is subject to intermittent
backwashing. These filters are designed to act as bioclarifiers simultaneously performing the
solids capture and the biofiltration function.
◦ The second employs floating beads that are continually moved. These filters are designed to
provide biofiltration, although some do make contributions to RAS clarification.
 Moving bed reactor
Moving Bed Reactors (MBR) use large (1/4 to 1/2 inch or 6 to 13 mm) plastic media and
are specifically manufactured to provide protected surfaces for fixed film bacteria. The
media is placed in a tank that is constantly aerated.
These filters particularly have a robust design and are relatively easy to design and
operate. A significant amount of air must be injected into the bed to keep it moving,
thus the MBRs can make significant contributions to the RAS aeration and
degasification needs.
The nitrification capacity of these filters tends to be only ¼ to ½ of the fluidized beds,
with filters sized to support about 0.5 to 1 pound of feed ration per cubic foot of media
(8 to 16 kg/m3 /day). Low cost of construction and simplicity of operation offset the
lower conversion rate, making this biofilters design popular for all sizes of operation.