Gambella university

College of Engineering and Technology

Thermal Unit Operation

Prepared by: Kelil G.

1
 CHAPTER
ONE
FUNDEMENTALS OF HEAT
TRANSFER
Outline
• Heat Transfer Fundamentals

 1.1 Introduction to Heat transfer

 1.2 Conduction

 1.3 Convection

 1.4 Radiation
 Introduction

• What is Heat?

•  Heat is the spontaneous flow of energy from one object to another,

• Caused by a difference in temperature between the two objects.

• What is Temperature?

•  Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms.

• Heat is the energy that makes molecules move.

• Molecules with more heat energy move faster

• Molecules with less heat energy move slower.

• As molecules heat up and move faster, they spread apart and objects expand.
 The basic laws governing heat transfer and their application are as below:
1. First law of thermodynamics postulating the energy conservation principle:

The net heat flow across the system boundary + heat generated inside the
system = change in the internal energy.

2. The second law of thermodynamics establishing the direction of energy

transport as heat.

3. Newton's laws of motion used in the determination of fluid flow parameters.

4. Law of conservation of mass, used in the determination of flow parameters.

5. The rate equations as applicable to the particular mode of heat transfer.

• Conduction
• Is how heat transfers through direct contact with objects that are touching.

• Any time that two objects or substances touch, the hotter object passes heat to the
cooler object.
• Convection
• Convection is how heat passes through fluids.
• Liquids and gases are fluids.

• Radiation
• There are no molecules in space
• Radiation is how heat moves through places where there are no
molecules.
• Radiation is actually a form of electromagnetic energy.
What is the d/n b/n Conduction, convection and radiation?
• Conduction is how heat travels between objects that are touching.

• Convection is how heat travels through fluids – liquids and gases.

• Radiation is how heat travels through empty space.

Fourier law of conduction, convection and radiation
Thermal Conductivity:
It is the constant of proportionality in Fourier’s equation

It is a material property and has W/m.K SI unit.

Its value is higher for

• good electrical conductors (metals) and
• single crystals like diamond.

Liquids have low conductivity than these materials.

Gases have the least value for thermal conductivity.

 • Thermal conductivity vs temperature.

• In good conductors:-
• Thermal conductivity decreases with temperature due to
•  Impedance to electron flow of higher electron densities.

• In insulators:-
• As temperature increases,
•  Thermal atomic activity also increases and

•  Thermal conductivity increases with temperature.

• Thermal conductivity increases with temperature:-

•  due to increased random activity of atoms and molecules.
 Thermal Insulation:
• To conserve heat energy, equipment's have to be insulated.

• Thermal insulation materials should have a low thermal conductivity.

• This is achieved:-
• In solids by trapping air or a gas in small cavities inside the material.

• By loose filling of solid particles.

• The insulating property depends on:

•  The material

•  Transport property of the gases filling the void spaces.

• There are essentially three types of insulating materials:

• 1. Fibrous:

• Small diameter particles are loosely filled in the gap between surfaces to be insulated.

• Mineral wool , Fiber glass, silica and Alumina

• 2. Cellular:

• These are available in the form of boards.

• Examples are polyurethane and expanded polystyrene foams.

• 3. Granular:

• small grains of inorganic materials.

 COMBINED MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Most of the time conduction and convection modes occur
simultaneously
•  when heat of hot fluid is transferred to a cold fluid through an
intervening barrier.

• Consider the following example.

•  A wall receives heat by convection and radiation on one side.
• After conduction, heat is transferred to the surroundings by convection
and radiation.
QUESTIONS

What is by
• Thermal Conductivity?
• Thermal Insulation?
STEADY STATE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION

• The term steady implies no change with time at any point

within the medium.

• The temperature remains unchanged with time.

• Heat transfer is one-dimensional.

• In this section we consider
• One-dimensional steady conduction

•  In a plane wall,

•  A hollow cylinder, and

• The objective is to develop expressions for the temperature

distribution and the rate of heat transfer.
 Plane Wall
• A plane wall of thickness (L) made of material with a thermal
conductivity (k), as illustrated in following figure.

• The temperature sat the two faces of the wall are fixed at Ts,1 and
Ts,2 with Ts,1 >T s,2.

• For steady conditions with no internal heat generation.

• The thermal resistance R increases as L increases, as A decreases,

and as k decreases.
Conduction-Plane wall.
• For a wall made of several layers of different materials, using the condition
that heat flow through one layer is equal to the heat flow through the other
layers.
 Hollow
Cylinder
• From the following Figure shows a hollow cylinder of inside radius
r1, outside radius r2, length L, and thermal conductivity k.

• The inside and out side surfaces are maintained at constant

temperatures Ts,1 and Ts,2, respectively with Ts,1 >Ts,2.

• For steady-state conduction in the radial direction with no internal

heat generation and constant thermal conductivity.
 Radialconduction
Radial conductionthrough
throughaahollow
hollowcylinder.
cylinder.
 Thermal Resistance
• Thermal resistance is defined as:

•  The ratio of the temperature difference to the associated rate of heat transfer.

• This is completely analogous to electrical resistance,which,according to

Ohm’s law,
•  Is defined as the ratio of the voltage difference to the current flow.

• The resistances are in series and sum to R = R1 + R2….Rn

• The resistance in parallel is given by: 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+……1/Rn=[1/R]-1

• When convection occurs at the boundaries of a solid, it is convenient to
define the convection resistance from Newton’s law of cooling:

• where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient and T∞ is the

convecting fluid temperature.
• It follows from eq. (1:16) that

eq. (1.16)
PARALLEL FLOW
Series composite Cylinder and its thermal network
 Question
1. What is by steady state condition mean?

2. What assumption must taken during the calculation of heat

transfer through wall,cilynder and sphere?

3. What is the d/n b/n thermal resistance and electric current

resistance?

4. What is the difference b/n forced convection and natural

convection?
 The pervious lesson

• Heat Transfer Fundamentals  Steady state one dimensional heat flow

 Thermal resistance
 1.1 Introduction to Heat transfer
 Thermal insulator

 1.2 Conduction
• To solve the Steady state heat flow problem follow the following steps
• Understand the question

• List the given

• Take some assumption

• Identify the unknown parameter

• Draw the provided diagram

• Write the provided formula

• Run your step

• Conclude for your answer

 Example 1/ convection and radiation heat transfer/.
• A slab 0.2m thick with thermal conductivity of 45 W/mK receives
heat from a furnace at 500 K both by convection and radiation.

• The convection coefficient has a value of 50W/m2K.

• The surface temperature is 400K on this side.
• The heat is transferred to surroundings at T∞2 both by convection and
radiation.
• The convection coefficient on this side being 60W/m2K.

• Determine the surrounding temperature.

Example 2/ heat transfer through cylinder/
 The top and bottom surfaces of a solid cylindrical rod are maintained at constant
temperatures of 20C and 95C while the side surface is perfectly insulated.

 The rate of heat transfer through the rod is to be determined for the cases of copper,
steel, and granite rod.

• Assumptions

•  Heat conduction is steady and one-dimensional, Thermal conductivity is constant

and There is no heat generation.

• Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be

•  k = 380 W/m°C for copper, k = 18 W/m°C for steel, and k = 1.2 W/m°C for granite.
Discussion: The steady rate of heat conduction can differ by
orders of magnitude, depending on the thermal conductivity of
the material.
 Example 3/ composite wall/
• A furnace wall is of three layers, first layer of insulation brick of 12 cm thickness of
conductivity 0.6 W/mK.

• The face is exposed to gases at 870°C with a convection coefficient of 110 W/m 2K.

• This layer is backed by a 10 cm layer of firebrick of conductivity 0.8 W/mK.

• There is a contact resistance between the layers of 2.6 × 10 –4 m2 °C/W.

• The third layer is the plate backing of 10 mm thickness of conductivity 49 W/mK.

• The contact resistance between the second and third layers is 1.5 × 10 –4 m2 °C/W.

• The plate is exposed to air at 30°C with a convection coefficient of 15 W/m 2K.

• Determine the heat flow, the surface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Solution
Note: The contact drops and drop in the metal plate are very small. The insulation
resistances and outside convection are the controlling resistances.
 Example 4/ composite cylinder/
• A pipe carrying steam at 230°C has an internal diameter of 12 cm and the pipe thickness is 7.5
mm.

• The conductivity of the pipe material is 49 W/mK the convective heat transfer coefficient on the
inside is 85 W/m2K.

• The pipe is insulated by two layers of insulation one of 5 cm thickness of conductivity 0.15 W/mK
and over it another 5 cm thickness of conductivity 0.48 W/mK.

• The outside is exposed to air at 35°C with a convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K.

• Determine the heat loss for 5 m length.

• Also determine the interface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient based on
inside and outside areas.
Solution

r1
r2
r3
Composite cylinder.
r3
 • Example 4

• Two slabs are placed in contact, but due to roughness, only 40% of area is in contact and
the gap in the remaining area is 0.02 mm thick and is filled with air.

• The slabs are 10 cm thick each and their conductivities are 15.5 W/mK and 200 W/mK.

• The temperature of the face of the hot surface is at 250°C and the outside surface of the
other slab is at 35°C.

• Determine the heat flow and the contact resistance. The conductivity of air is 0.0321
W/mK.

• Solution: Of the contact area it is assumed that half of the contact is due to either metal.

• Total area is taken as 1m2.

HOME WORK
HOME WORK
 Home work

• A composite slab is made of three layers 15 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm thickness.

• The first layer is of material with thermal conductivity 1.45 for 60% of the area and the rest is of
material with conductivity of 2.5 W/mK.

• The second layer is made of material with conductivity of 12.5 W/mK for 50% area and of
material with conductivity 18.5 W/mK is used for the other 50%.

• The third layer is of single material of thermal conductivity 0.76 W/mK.

• The slab is exposed on one side to warm air at 26°C and to cold air at – 20°C on the other side.

• The convection coefficients are 15 and 20 W/m2K on the inside and outside respectively.

• Determine the heat flow and interface temperatures.

 HOME WORK
• The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick,
and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k " 0.8
W/m · °C .

• The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are
measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine

a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and

b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity is
$0.08/kWh.
THE END OF THE
CHAPTER