Chapter - 1

INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIRONMENT
AL STUDIES
 Introduction

The word environment is derived from the French word

"Environ" meaning "Surroundings".

Each and everything around us is called as environment.

Every organism is surrounded by materials and forces which

constitute its environment, from which it must derive its
needs.

Environment creates favourable conditions for the existence

and development of living organisms.
Example

The animal eats plants for its survival. The plant requires
nourishment from the soil. Nourishment is provided by
nitrogenous mater excreted by animal or by the dead bodies of
other plants and animals

Thus for the survival of an animal (or) a plant, (or) a microbe, it

requires a supply of materials and removal of waste products
from its environment.

Degradation of the environment nowadays has become a serious

problem. Pollution of soil, water and air leads to loss of valuable
natural resources
Types of Environmental

Example
Example

Scope of Environmental Studies

Importance of Environmental Studies
Risks and Hazards in the Environment
Types of Hazards
Chemical hazards are systems, where chemical accidents like
fires, explosions, leakages could occur under certain
circumstances.
Prevention and control measures of Hazards
ECO SYSTEM
Definition

Ecology is the study of interactions among

organisms or group of organisms with their
environment.
The environment consists of both biotic
components (living organisms) and abiotic
components (non-living organisms).
(or)
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology.

 Greek word meaning study of home.

Definition

A group of organisms interacting among themselves and

with environment is known as ecosystem.
In an ecosystem is a community of different species
interacting with one another and with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and matter.
Biome (Small Ecosystem)

A kind of organisms which can live in a particular ecosystem

depends on their physical and metabolic adoptions to the
environment of that place.
TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE / COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Components of an ecosystems and their relationship

 Abiotic (non-living) components

Non-living components (physical and chemical) of an

ecosystem collectively form a community called abiotic
components (or) abiotic community. It includes

Example: Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc.,

1. Physical components: It includes the energy, climate,

raw materials and living space that the biological community
needs. It is useful for the growth and maintenance of its
member.
2. Chemical Components: It is the sources of essential
nutrients.

Example
(i) Organic substances: Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,
(ii) Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zn, Cu) and
macro elements (C, H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other elements.
Biotic components

Living organisms in an ecosystem collectively

form its community called biotic components.

The living components are made of many

different species. These species are distinguished
on the basis of their nutritional (feeding)
relationship.
1. Autotrophic components:

Autotrophic components are producers, which are

autotrophs (self-nourishing organisms). They derive
energy from sunlight and make organic compounds from
inorganic substances.
Example: Green plants, algae, bacteria, etc.,

2. Heterotrophic components:

Heterotrophic components are consumers and

decomposers, which are heterotrophs (dependent on
others for food).
Classification of biotic components

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are

grouped into three groups based on how do they get their
food.

1. Producers (Plants).
2. Consumer (Animals).
3. Decomposers (Micro-organisms).
(Producers) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer) (Tertiary consumer)
(Producers) (Herbivores) (Primary carnivores) (Secondary Carnivores)
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

1. Primary function (or) primary production:

Primary function of all ecosystems is manufacture of starch
(photosynthesis).

2. Secondary function (or) secondary production:

Secondary function of all ecosystem is distributing energy
in the form of food to all consumers (or) the energy stored by
the consumer

3. Tertiary Function: All living systems die at a particular

stage. These dead systems are decomposed to initiate the
third function of ecosystems namely “cycling”.
Functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by
studying the following terms.

(a) Energy and material flow.

(b) Food chains.
(c) Food webs.
(d) Food pyramids.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS

Sun is the ultimate source of energy.

The atmosphere absorbs 50% of the radiations and allow

the remaining to reach the earth surface.

Of the solar radiations, reached the earth’s surface, some

of which is absorbed by organisms (primary producers) to
produce organic matter through photosynthesis.
1. First law of thermodynamics

It states that, “energy can neither be created nor

destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to
another.”
Energy for an ecosystem comes from the sun. It is
absorbed by plants, wherein it is converted into stored
chemical energy.
2. Second law of thermodynamics
It states that, “whenever energy is transformed, there is
a loss of energy through the release of heat.”

There will be a loss of energy (about 80-90%) in the form

of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic
level.

 The loss of energy takes place through respiration,

running, hunting etc.,
Flow of energy and nutrient cycling from abiotic to
biotic and vice versa.
 NUTRIENT CYCLING (OR) BIOGEOCHEMICAL
CYCLE IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Nutrients

Elements, which are essential for the survival of both

plants and animals are called nutrients.

1. Macronutrients

Example: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium

and phosphorus.
 2. Micronutrients

Example: Boron, cobalt, strontium, zinc, copper.

Nutrient cycles

 Cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic

components is known as nutrient cycle (or) biogeochemical
cycles.
  The major nutrients like C, H, O and N are cycled again
and again between biotic and abiotic component of the
ecosystem.

Hydrological Cycle

• Movement of water in a cyclic manner is known as

hydrological cycle.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrification
Conversion of ammonia into nitrates is termed as
nitrification. This is brought about by nitrifying bacteria.

Example: Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas.

Denitrification

Conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N2) is termed as

Denitrification. This process is brought about by denitrifying
bacteria.

Example: Pseudomonas, fluorescence.

Oxygen cycle
Oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen

1. The atmosphere (air).

2. The biosphere (sum of all ecosystem).
3. The lithosphere (earth’s crust).
Oxygen cycle
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

 In an area one community may be replaced by another

community or by a series of communities.
 Thus the progressive replacement of one community by
another till the development of stable community in a
particular area is called ecological succession.

Stages of ecological succession

1. Pioneer community
First group of organism, which establish their community
in the area is called ‘Pioneer’ Community.
2. Seres (or) Seral stage

Various developmental stages of a community is called

‘seres’.

Community
It is the group of plants or animals living in an
area.

Types of ecological succession

Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession,

based on the conditions present at the beginning of the
process.
1. Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment
of biotic communities on a lifeless ground.

(a) Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere: Establishment starts in a watery

area like pond and lake.

(b) Xerarch or Xerosere: Establishment starts in a dry area

like, desert and rock.

2. Secondary succession: It involves the establishment of

biotic communities in an area, where some type of biotic
community is already present.
 Process of Ecological Succession

Process of ecological succession can be explained in the

following steps.

1. Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any

life form.

2. Invasion: It is the establishment of one or more species on a

bare area through migration followed by establishment.
(a) Migration: Migration of seeds is brought about by wind,
water or birds.
(b) Establishment: The seeds then germinate and grow on
the land and establishes their pioneer communities.
3. Competition: As the number of individual species grows, there
is a competition with the same species and between different
species for space, water and nutrients.

4. Reaction: The living organisms, take water, nutrients and

grow and modify the environment is known as reaction.
This modification becomes unsuitable for the existing species
and favour some new species, which replace the existing
species. This leads to seral communities.

5. Stabilizations: It leads to stable community, which is in

equilibrium with the environment.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Introduction

A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and dense trees

grow that support many animals and birds. The forests are found
in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high rainfall.

The forest occupies nearly 40% of the world’s land area. In

India it occupies only 19% of its total land area.
Rain Forest of the World
Types of forest ecosystem

Depending upon the climate conditions

1. Tropical rain forests.

2. Tropical deciduous forests.
3. Tropical scrub forests.
4. Temperate rain forests.
5. Temperate deciduous forests.
Characteristics of Forest Ecosystems

1. Forests are characterised by warm temperature and

adequate rainfall, which make the generation of number of
ponds, lakes etc.,
2. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
3. The forest supports many wild animals and protect
biodiversity.
4. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients, which
support the growth of trees.
5. Since penetration of light is so poor, the conversion of
organic matter into nutrients is very fast.
Structure (Components) and Function of forest ecosystem

I. Abiotic components

Example: Climatic factors (temperature, light, rainfall)

and minerals.

Abiotic components are physical components (inorganic and

organic substances) found in the soil and atmosphere. In addition
to minerals, the occurrence of litter is characteristic features of
majority of forests.
II. Biotic components

1. Producers

Example: Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation.

The plants absorb sunlight and produce food through

photosynthesis.

2. Consumers
(a) Primary consumers (herbivores)

Example: Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, squirrels.

 Forest Ecosystem
They directly depend on the plants for their food.
(b) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores)

Example: Snakes, birds, fox.

 They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.

(c) Tertiary consumers

Example: Animals like tiger, lion, etc.,

 They depend on the primary carnivores for their food.

4. Decomposers

Bacteria and fungi.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

• Grassland occupies about 20% of earth’s surface. In

addition to grass species, some trees and shrubs are also
present in grasslands.

• Limited grazing helps to improve the net primary

production of the grasslands. But, overgrazing leads to
degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification.
 Types of grassland ecosystem

Depending upon the climate conditions grassland

can be classified into three types

1. Tropical grasslands.
2. Temperate grasslands.
3. Polar grasslands.
Features of different types of grassland

1. Tropical grasslands

They are found near the borders of tropical rain forests.

They are characterized by high temperature and moderate
rainfall (40 to 100 cm). It is also known as Savanna-type.

They have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted

trees and animals like zebras, giraffes, antelopes, etc.,
 2. Temperate grasslands
They are found in the centers of continents, on flat,
sloped hills. They are characterized by very cold winters
and hot summers. Intense grazing and summer fires, do not
allow shrubs or trees to grow.

3. Polar grasslands
They are found in arctic polar regions. They are
characterised by severe cold and strong winds along with ice
and snow.
In summers several small annual plants grow. They have
animals like arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, etc.,
Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

1. Grassland ecosystem is a plain land occupied by grasses.

2. Soil is very rich in nutrients and organic matter.

3. Since it has tall grass, it is ideal place for grazing animals.

4. It is characterized by low or uneven rainfall.

Structure & function of Grassland Ecosystems

I. Abiotic Components

Nutrients, C, H, O, N, P, S, etc.,

 These abiotic components are supplied by CO2, H2O,

nitrates, phosphates and sulfates.

II. Biotic Components

1. Producers
Grasses, forbs and shrubs.
2. Consumers
(a) Primary consumers (herbivores)
Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, etc.,

(b) Secondary consumers (carnivores)

Snakes, lizards, birds, Jackals, fox, etc.,

(c) Tertiary consumers

Hawks, eagles, etc.,
3. Decomposers
Fungi and bacteria.
 They decompose the dead organic matter.

Grassland Ecosystem
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS

Introduction

Desert occupies about 35% of our world’s land area. It is

characterised by less than 25 cm rainfall. The atmosphere is
dry and hence it is a poor insulator.

Types of desert ecosystems

Based on the climatic conditions, deserts are classified

into three types.
1. Tropical deserts.
2. Temperate deserts.
3. Cold deserts.
Features of different types of deserts

1. Tropical deserts

(i) Africa: Sahara desert.

(ii) Rajasthan: Thar desert.

2. Temperate deserts

They are found in South California: Majave

3. Cold deserts

They are found in China: Gobi desert

Characteristic features of Forest ecosystems

1. The desert air is dry and the climate is hot.

2. Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm.
3. The soil is very poor in nutrients and organic matter.
4. Vegetation is poor.
Structure and functions of the desert Ecosystems

I. Abiotic Components

Eg. Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water, etc.,

II. Biotic Components

1. Producers

Eg. Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees.

In deserts mostly Succulent (e.g., cacti) plants are

found available. They have water inside them to stay alive.
They have waxy layer on the outside to protect them from
the sun.

2. Consumers

Eg. Squirrels, mice, foxes, rabbits, deer and reptiles.

Desert Ecosystem
 These animals dig holes in the ground to live in. They
come out at night to find food. Most of the animals can
extract water from the seeds they eat.

3. Decomposers

Eg. Fungi and bacteria.

Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of

dead organic matter. They are decomposed by few fungi
and bacteria.
 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

The aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies. The

major types of organisms found in aquatic environments
are determined by the water’s salinity.

Types of aquatic life zone

Aquatic life zones are divided into two types.

1. Fresh water life zones

Eg. Ponds, streams, lakes, rivers.

2. Salt water life zones

Eg. Oceans, estuaries.

I. FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEMS

POND ECOSYSTEM

A pond is a fresh water aquatic ecosystem, where water is

stagnant. It receives enough water during rainy season. It
contains several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes
and birds.
 Characteristic features of pond ecosystem

1. Pond is temporary, only seasonal.

2. It is a stagnant fresh water body.
3. Ponds get polluted easily due to limited amount of
water.

Structure and functions of pond ecosystem

I. Abiotic Components

Temperature, light, water and organic and inorganic

compounds.
II. Biotic Components

1. Producers

These include green photosynthetic organisms. They

are of two types.

(a) Phytoplankton
These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on
the surface of water.

Eg. Algae, small floating plants like volvox,

pandorina, anabaena, cosmarium.
(b) Microphytes
Eg. Large floating plants and submerged plants like hydrilla,
Jussiaea, wolfia, demna.

2. Consumers
(a) Primary consumers (Zooplanktons)

These are microscopic animals which freely float on the

surface of water.

Eg. Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates, flagellates and

protozoans.
Pond Ecosystem
 Zooplanktons are found along with phytoplankton. They feed
on plants (phytoplankton).

(b) Secondary consumers (Carnivores).

Eg. Insects like water beetles and small fish.

They feed on zooplankton.

(c) Tertiary consumers

Eg. Large fish like game fish.

They feed on smaller fish.
3. Decomposers

Eg. Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.

They decompose the dead plant and animal matter and
their nutrients are released and reused by the green plants.

LAKE ECOSYSTEM

Lakes are large natural shallow water bodies. Lakes are used
for various purposes. Lakes are supplied with water from rainfall,
melting snow and streams.
 Some important types of lakes

1. Oligotrophic lakes: They have low nutrient concentrations.

2. Eutrophic lakes: They are overnourished by nutrients like N
and P.
3. Dystrophic lakes: They have low pH, high humic acid
content and brown waters.
4. Volcanic lakes: They receive water from magma after
volcanic eruptions.
5. Meromictic lakes: They are rich in salts.
6. Artificial lakes
They are created due to construction of dams.
 Zones of Lake

Depending upon their depth and distance from the shore,

lakes consists of four distinct zones.
1. Littoral zones: It is the top layer of the lake. It has a shallow
water.
2. Limnetic zone: Next to the littoral zone is limnetic zone,
where effective penetration of solar light takes place.
3. Profundal zone: The deep open water, where it is too
dark.
4. Benthic zone: This zone is found at the bottom of the lake.
 Profundal Zone

Zones of Lake
Characteristic features of lake ecosystem

1. Lake is a shallow fresh water body.

2. It is a permanent water body with large water resources.
3. It helps in irrigation and drinking.

Structure and function of lake ecosystem

I. Abiotic Components

Eg. Temperature, light, proteins and lipids, turbidity, O2 and

CO2.
II. Biotic Components
1. Producers
They are green plants, may be submerged, free floating
and amphibious plants.

Eg. Phytoplanktons, algae and flagellates.

2. Consumers

(a) Primary Consumers (Zooplanktons)

Eg. Cilictes, protozoans, etc.,

They feed on phytoplankton.

(b) Secondary consumers (carnivores)
Eg. Insects and small fishes.
They feed on zooplankton.

(c) Tertiary consumers

Eg. Large fishes like game fish.
They feed on smaller fish.

3. Decomposers

Eg. Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes.

They decompose the dead plants and animals.

RIVER (OR) STREAM ECOSYSTEM

The running water of a stream or a river is usually well

oxygenated, because it absorbs oxygen from the air. The
number of animals are low in river or stream.

Characteristic features of River or Stream

1. It is a fresh water, and free flowing water systems.

2. Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is more.
3. River deposits large amount of nutrients.
Structure and function of River or Stream Ecosystem

I. Abiotic Components

Eg. Temperature, light, pH, nutrients, organic and inorganic

compounds.

II. Biotic Components

1. Producers

Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, aquatic masses

and other amphibious plants.
2. Consumers
(i) Primary consumers
Eg. Water insects, snails, fishes.

They feed on phytoplankton.

(ii) Secondary Consumers

Eg. Birds and mammals.
They feed on primary consumers.

(iii) Decomposers
Eg. Bacteria and fungi.
They decompose the dead animals and plants.
II. SALT WATER ECOSYSTEMS

OCEAN (MARINE) ECOSYSTEMS

Oceans cover more than two thirds of the earth’s surface.

The ocean environment is characterized by its high
concentration of salts and minerals.

It supplies huge variety of sea-products and drugs. It also

provides us iron, magnesium, phosphorus, natural gas.
 Characteristic features of Ocean Ecosystem

1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.

2. Since ship, submarines can sail in ocean, commercial activities
may be carried out.
3. It is rich in biodiversity.
4. It moderates the temperature of the earth.
Ocean (marine) Ecosystem
Structure and function of Ocean Ecosystems

I. Abiotic Components

Eg. Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg Salts,

alkalinity.

II. Biotic Components

1. Producers

Eg. Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae, etc.) and

marine plants (sea weeds, chlorophyceal, phaeophyceae).
2. Consumers
These are heterotrophic macro consumers. They
depend on producers for their nutrition.

(i) Primary consumers (herbivores)

Eg. Crustaceans, moiluscs, fish.

They feed on producers.

(ii) Secondary consumers (carnivores)

Eg. Herring sahd, mackerel, etc.,

They feed on herbivores.

(iii) Tertiary Consumers

Eg. Cod, Haddock, etc.,

They are the top consumers. They feed on small fishes.

(3) Decomposers

Eg. Bacteria and some fungi.

They decompose the dead organic matter

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the

mouth of a river, where river joins the sea. It is strongly
affected by tidal action.

Estuaries are generally abundant of nutrients. Estuaries

are useful to human beings due to their high food potential. It
is essential to protect the estuaries from pollution.
 Characteristics of Estuarine ecosystem

1. Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly affected by

tides of the sea.

2. Water characteristics are periodically changed.

3. The living organism in estuarine ecosystems have wide

tolerance.

4. Salinity remains highest during the summer and lowest

during the winter.
Structure and function of Estuarine Ecosystem

I. Abiotic Components

Eg. Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts and

various nutrients.

II. Biotic Components

(a) Producers

Eg. Marsh grasses, seaweeds, sea grasses and phytoplankton.

(b) Consumers

Eg. Oysters, crabs, seabirds, small fishes.

(c) Decomposers

Eg. Bacteria, fungi and actenomycetous.