C-3 ECOSYSTEMS

QUESTIONS

1. Define ecology and ecosystems.

 The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869.

 It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study.
 Ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their
surroundings.
 The surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical
(abiotic) components.
 An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another
and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Now ecology is
often defined as the study of ecosystem,Tansley (1935)
 An ecosystem is an integrated unit consisting of interacting plants, animals and
microorganisms whose survival depends upon the maintenance and regulation of their
biotic and abiotic structures and functions.
 The ecosystem is thus, a unit or a system which is composed of a number of subunits,
that are all directly or indirectly linked with each other.
 They may be freely exchanging energy and matter from outside an open ecosystem or
may be isolated from outside a closed ecosystem.

2. What are the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem ?

The plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic component.
These organisms have different nutritional behaviour and status in the ecosystems and are
accordingly known as Producers or Consumers, based on how do they get their food.
(a) Producers: They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by
making use of carbondioxide present in the air and water in the presence of sunlight by
involving chlorophyll, the green pigment present in the leaves, through the process of
photosynthesis. They are also known as photo autotrophs
There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some extent
through oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as
chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs.
(b) Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding upon other organisms are
called consumers, which are of the following types:
(i) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known as
primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man.
(ii) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores
they are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and if they feed on other carnivores
(snake, big fish etc.) they are known as tertiary carnivores/consumers.
 (iii) Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. e.g. humans, rat, fox, many birds.
(iv) (iv) Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead
organisms, wastes of living organisms, their castoffs and partially decomposed
matter e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.
(c) Decomposers: They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules
to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients.
Various bacteria and fungi are decomposers.

The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.
It includes climatic factors, edaphic (soil) factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and
toxic substances.
(a) Physical factors: The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours,
average temperature, maximum-minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude and
altitude, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. are some of the important physical
features which have a strong influence on the ecosystem.
(b) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, level of toxic substances, salts
causing salinity and various organic substances present in the soil or water largely influence
the functioning of the ecosystem.
All the biotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by the abiotic components and
vice versa, and they are linked together through energy flow and matter cycling.

3. What are food chains and food webs ? Give examples and discuss their significance.

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
Some common examples of simple food chains are:
Grass → grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
Phytoplanktons → water fleas → small fish → Tuna (Pond ecosystem)
Lichens → reindeer → Man (Arctic tundra)
In nature, we come across two major types of food chains:
1. Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and culminates in
carnivores
2. Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and
decomposers consume.
 The grazing food chain derives its energy basically from plant energy while in the
detritus food chain it is obtained primarily from plant biomass, secondarily from
microbial biomass and tertiarily from carnivores
Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at
each trophic level.
Significance of food chains and food webs:
 1.Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two
most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
2.The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different
animals and thus, help maintain the ecological balance.
3.Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals. There
are several pesticides, heavy metals and other chemicals which are non-biodegradable in
nature. Such chemicals are not decomposed by microorganisms and they keep on passing
from one trophic level to another. And, at each successive trophic level, they keep on
increasing in concentration. This phenomenon is known as biomagnification or biological
magnification.

4.Why nature has evolved food webs in ecosystems instead of simple linear food chains?
This is because food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem. In a linear food chain, if
one species becomes extinct or one species suffers then the species in the subsequent
trophic levels are also affected. In a food web, on the other hand, there are a number of
options available at each trophic level. So if one species is affected, it does not affect other
trophic levels so seriously

4. What are ecological pyramids ? Explain why some of these pyramids are upright while others are
inverted in different ecosystems.

Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with

producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological
pyramid.
The pyramid of biomass can be upright or inverted. The pyramid of biomass in a forest is
upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is because the producers (trees) accumulate
a huge biomass while the consumers’ total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic
levels, resulting in broad base and narrowing top.
The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass .The total biomass of producers
(phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects), Carnivores
(Small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with
narrow base and broad apex.

5. Discuss the models of energy flow in an ecosystem.

The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be explained with the
help of various energy flow models.
(a) Universal energy f low model:
 Energy flow through an ecosystem was explained by E.P. Odum as the universal
energy flow model .
 As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every level,
thereby resulting in less energy available at next trophic level .
  The loss of energy is mainly the energy not utilized (NU). This is the energy lost in
locomotion, excretion etc. or it is the energy lost in respiration (R) which is for
maintenance. The rest of the energy is used for production (P).
(b) Single channel energy flow model:
 The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single channel
of green plants or producers to herbivores and carnivores.
 There is gradual decline in energy level due to loss of energy at each successive
trophic level in a grazing food chain.
(c) Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model:
 The two channel or Y-shaped model of energy flow shows the passage of energy
through the two food chains, which are separated in time and space.
 In nature, both grazing food chain and detritus food chain operate in the same
ecosystem. However, sometimes it is the grazing food chain which predominates.
 It happens in marine ecosystem where primary production in the open sea is limited
and a major portion of it is eaten by herbivorous marine animals. Therefore, very
little primary production is left to be passed on to the dead or detritus
compartment.
 On the other hand, in a forest ecosystem the huge quantity of biomass produced
cannot be all consumed by herbivores. Rather, a large proportion of the live biomass
enters into detritus (dead) compartment in the form of litter. Hence the detritus
food chain is more important there.
6. What are biogeochemical cycles ? Explain with the help of a diagram the nitrogen cycle.

 Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus etc. move in
circular paths through biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as
biogeochemical cycles.
 Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amount (78%) and it is fixed either
by the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or
cyanobacteria (blue green algae).
 The nitrogen is taken up by plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino
acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and passes through the food chain.
 After death of the plants and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues is
decomposed by several groups of ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert
them into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants.
 Some bacteria convert nitrates, into molecular nitrogen or N2 which is released back
into the atmosphere and the cycle goes on.
Diagram (from book)
7. Define primary production and secondary production. Why are tropical wet forests and
estuaries most productive ?
  Primary productivity of an ecosystem is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is
converted into organic substances by photosynthesis or chemo-synthesis by the primary
producers.
 The energy stored at consumer level for use by the next trophic level is thus defined as
secondary production.
 Primary production of an ecosystem depends upon the solar radiations, availability of
water and nutrients and upon the type of the plants and their chlorophyll content.
 Productivity of tropical forests and estuaries are the highest. This is because tropical
forests have abundant rainfall, warm temperature congenial for growth, abundant
sunlight and a rich diversity of species. Estuaries get natural energy subsidies in the form
of wave currents that bring along with them nutrients required for production
8. What is homeostasis ? What are feedback mechanisms ?

 Homeostasis is the inherent property of all living systems to resist change.

 A system can show this tolerance or resistance only within a maximum and a minimum
range, which is its range of tolerance known as homeostatic plateau.
 Within this range, if any stress tries to cause a deviation, then the system has its own
mechanisms to counteract these deviations which are known as negative feedback
mechanisms. negative feedback mechanisms are deviation counteracting mechanisms
which try to bring the system back to its ideal conditions.
 But, if the stress is too high and beyond the range of homeostatic plateau, then another
type of mechanisms known as positive feedback mechanisms start operating. These are
the deviation accelerating mechanisms. positive feedback mechanisms add to the stress
conditions and tend to take the system away from the optimal conditions.
9. Discuss the process of ecological succession.
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community structure
and function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and
ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.
The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or seres
whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called a pioneer community.
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may
be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to
drought, glaciers, frost etc. (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak,
agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic factors).
(ii) Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area
through dispersal or migration, followed by ecesis or establishment. Dispersal of the
seeds, spores etc. is brought about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds
germinate and grow on the land. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer
species increase in number and form groups or aggregations.
 (iii) Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition,
both inter-specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same
species), for space, water and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways,
known as coaction.
(iv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and
in turn, they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large
extent and this is known as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they
become unsuitable for the existing species and favour some new species, which replace
them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.
(v) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community
called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. The climax community is
characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages
between organisms and are maintained quite efficiently per unit of available energy.
10. Write short notes on (a) tropical rain forests (b) Savannas (c) Arctic Tundra.

Tropical Rain Forests:

1.They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator.
2.They are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which
favour the growth of trees.
3.All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform.
4.They are the richest in biodiversity.
5.Different forms of life occupy specialized areas (niches) within different layers and spaces of
the ecosystem depending upon their needs for food, sunlight, water, nutrient etc.
6.On the tree trunks some woody climbers are found to grow which are known as Lianas.
7.There are some other plants like Orchids which are epiphytes i.e. they are attached to the
trunks or branches of big trees and they take up water and nutrients falling from above.
8.The understorey trees usually receive very dim sunlight.
9.They usually develop dark green leaves with high chlorophyll content so that they can use the
diffused sunlight for photosynthesis.
10.The shrub layer receives even less sunlight and the ground layer commonly known as forest
floor receives almost no sunlight and is a dark layer. Termites, fungi, mushrooms etc. grow on
the ground layer. The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in India which is
the natural habitat for a wide variety of species.

Tropical grasslands:
1.They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high average temperature
and low to moderate rainfall.
2.In Africa, these are typically known as Savannas, which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs
and stunted trees.
3.The Savannas have a wide diversity of animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc.
4.During dry season, fires are quite common. Termite mounds are very common here. The
 termites gather the detritus (dead organic matter) containing a lot of cellulose and build up a
mound.
5.Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis.
6.Most of the carbon assimilated by them in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating
bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. which are present underground.
7. Deliberate burning of these grasslands can relase huge quantities of carbon dioxide, another
green house gas, responsible for global warming.

Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra):

1.They are found in arctic polar region where severe cold and strong, frigid winds along with ice
and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow.
2.In summers the sun-shines almost round the clock and hence several small annual plants
grow in the summer.
3.The animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc.
4.A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year and is known as
permafrost.
5.In summer, the tundra shows the appearance of shallow lakes, bogs etc. where mosquitoes,
different type of insects and migratory birds appear.

11. What are the different zones in a lake ecosystem ?

Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies with standing water. They have a shallow water zone called
Littoral zone, an open-water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called Limnetic
zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible, known as profundal zone.

12. What do you mean by the following : (a) Thermocline (b) Oligotrophic Lakes (c) Meromictic Lakes.

(a)Epilimnion : Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer Hypolimnion : Cold, viscous, non-circulating
bottom layer. In between the two layers is thermocline, the region of sharp drop in temperature.

(b)Oligotrophic lakes which have low nutrient concentrations.

(c)Meromictic lakes that are rich in salts and are permanently stratified e.g. lake Nevada.

12. Discuss the major features of a stream (river) that differ from that of a lake.

 These are freshwater aquatic ecosystems where water current is a major controlling factor,
oxygen and nutrient in the water is more uniform and land-water exchange is more extensive.
 Although stream organisms have to face more extremes of temperature and action of currents
as compared to pond or lake organisms, but they do not have to face oxygen deficiency under
natural conditions.
 This is because the streams are shallow, have a large surface exposed to air and constant motion
which churns the water and provides abundant oxygen.
  Their dissolved oxygen level is higher than that of ponds even though the green plant

14. Discuss zonation in an ocean. What role is played by oceans in terms of providing resources and
regulating climate ?

These are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than 70% of our earth ’s surface.

Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play an important role in regulating many
biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle, thereby regulating the earth’s climate

The oceans have two major life zones:

Coastal zone with relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients and ample sunlight
this is the zone of high primary productivity.

Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf (The submerged part of
the continent). It is vertically divided into three regions:

(i) Euphotic zone which receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetic activity
(ii) Bathyal zone receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
(iii) Abyssal zone is the dark zone, 2000 to 5000 metres deep. The abyssal zone has no primary
source of energy i.e. solar energy. It is the worlds largest ecological unit but it is an incomplete
ecosystem

15. Discuss the salient features of an estuarine ecosystem.

 An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where fresh water and
salty seawater meet.
 These are the transition zones which are strongly affected by tidal action.
 Constant mixing of water stirs up the silt which makes the nutrients available for the primary
producers. There are wide variations in the stream flow and tidal currents at any given location
diurnally, monthly and seasonally.
 Therefore, the organisms present in estuaries show a wide range of tolerance to temperature
and salinity. Such organisms are known as eurythermal and euryhaline.
 Coastal bays, and tidal marshes are examples of estuaries.
 Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic. There are many
migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water
and half in salty water. For them estuaries are ideal places for resting during migration, where
they also get abundant food.
 Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems. The river flow and tidal action provide energy
subsidies for the estuary thereby enhancing its productivity.
 Estuaries are of much use to human beings due to their high food potential. However, these
ecosystems need to be managed judiciously and protected from pollution