William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 10 Edition
William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 10 Edition
William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 10 Edition
William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
Magnetic
Read
Electric pulses are sent to the write
The write head itself is made of
easily magnetizable material and is
and Write
head and the resulting magnetic
patterns are recorded on the surface
in the shape of a rectangular
doughnut with a gap along one side
Mechanisms
below, with different patterns for
and a few turns of conducting wire
positive and negative currents
along the opposite side
MR
sensor Write current
Shield
Inductive
N write element
S
S
N
N
S
Magnetization S
N
N
S
S
N
N
S
Recording
medium
Inter-sector gap
Track sector
Sector
Read-write head
(1 per surface)
Platter
Direction of
Cylinder Spindle Boom
arm motion
gap ID gap data gap gap ID gap data gap gap ID gap data gap
1 field 2 field 3 1 field 2 field 3 1 field 2 field 3
0 0 1 1 29 29
bytes 17 7 41 515 20 17 7 41 515 20 17 7 41 515 20
600 bytes/sector
bytes 1 2 1 1 2 1 512 2
Table 6.1
Physical Characteristics of Disk Systems
Device Busy
To read or write the head must be positioned at the desired track and at the beginning of the desired
sector on the track
Track selection involves moving the head in a movable-head system or electronically selecting one head on a
fixed-head system
Once the track is selected, the disk controller waits until the appropriate sector rotates to line up with the
head
Seek time
On a movable–head system, the time it takes to position the head at the track
Access time
The sum of the seek time and the rotational delay
The time it takes to get into position to read or write
Transfer time
Once the head is in position, the read or write operation is then performed as the
sector moves under the head
This is the data transfer portion of the operation
Characteristics Performance
An error-correcting code is calculated
Makes use of a parallel access across corresponding bits on each data
technique disk and the bits of the code are stored
in the corresponding bit positions on
In a parallel access array all member multiple parity disks
disks participate in the execution of
every I/O request Typically a Hamming code is used,
which is able to correct single-bit errors
Spindles of the individual drives are and detect double-bit errors
synchronized so that each disk head
The number of redundant disks is
is in the same position on each disk
proportional to the log of the number of
at any given time
data disks
Data striping is used Would only be an effective choice in an
Strips are very small, often as small as environment in which many disk errors
a single byte or word occur
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+ Raid 3
RAID
Level 3
Redundancy Performance
Requires only a single redundant In the event of a drive failure, the parity drive
disk, no matter how large the disk is accessed and data is reconstructed from the
remaining devices
array
Once the failed drive is replaced, the missing
Employs parallel access, with data data can be restored on the new drive and
distributed in small strips operation resumed
Level 4
Characteristics
Performance
Makes use of an independent
access technique Involves a write penalty when an
I/O write request of small size is
In an independent access array,
each member disk operates
performed
independently so that separate I/O
requests can be satisfied in parallel
Each time a write occurs the array
management software must update
Data striping is used not only the user data but also the
corresponding parity bits
Strips are relatively large
Level 5 Level 6
Characteristics Characteristics
Organized in a similar fashion to Two different parity calculations
RAID 4 are carried out and stored in
separate blocks on different disks
Difference is distribution of the
parity strips across all disks Advantage is that it provides
extremely high data availability
A typical allocation is a round-
robin scheme Three disks would have to fail
within the mean time to repair
The distribution of parity strips (MTTR) interval to cause data to be
across all drives avoids the lost
potential I/O bottleneck found in
RAID 4 Incurs a substantial write penalty
because each write affects two
parity blocks
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Table 6.4
RAID
Comparison
(page 1 of 2)
Durability
Longer lifespan
Table 6.5
Comparison of Solid State Drives and Disk Drives
In te rfa c e
In te rfa c e SS D
C o n t r o lle r
A d d re s s in g
D a ta b u ffe r/ Erro r
cache c o r re c t io n
F la s h
m e m o ry
co m p o n e n ts
F la s h
m e m o ry
co m p o n e n ts
F la s h
m e m o ry
co m p o n e n ts
F la s h
m e m o ry
co m p o n e n ts
CD-ROM
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory. A nonerasable disk used for storing computer data.
The standard system uses 12-cm disks and can hold more than 650 Mbytes.
CD-R
CD Recordable. Similar to a CD-ROM. The user can write to the disk only once.
Table 6. 6
CD-RW
CD Rewritable. Similar to a CD-ROM. The user can erase and rewrite to the disk
multiple times. Optical
DVD
Digital Versatile Disk. A technology for producing digitized, compressed representation
Disk
of video information, as well as large volumes of other digital data. Both 8 and 12 cm diameters
are used, with a double-sided capacity of up to 17 Gbytes. The basic DVD is read-only (DVD- Products
ROM).
DVD-R
DVD Recordable. Similar to a DVD-ROM. The user can write to the disk only once.
Only one-sided disks can be used.
DVD-RW
DVD Rewritable. Similar to a DVD-ROM. The user can erase and rewrite to the disk
multiple times. Only one-sided disks can be used.
Blu-Ray DVD
High definition video disk. Provides considerably greater data storage density than DVD,
using a 405-nm (blue-violet) laser. A single layer on a single side can store 25 Gbytes.
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+
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory
(CD-ROM)
Audio CD and the CD-ROM share a similar technology
The main difference is that CD-ROM players are more rugged and have
error correction devices to ensure that data are properly transferred
Production:
The disk is formed from a resin such as polycarbonate
Digitally recorded information is imprinted as a series of microscopic pits on the
surface of the polycarbonate
This is done with a finely focused, high intensity laser to create a master disk
The master is used, in turn, to make a die to stamp out copies onto polycarbonate
The pitted surface is then coated with a highly reflective surface, usually aluminum
or gold
This shiny surface is protected against dust and scratches by a top coat
of clear acrylic
Finally a label can be silkscreened onto the acrylic
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Protective
acrylic Label
Land
Pit
Polycarbonate Aluminum
plastic
Laser transmit/
receive
Sector
Mode
MIN
SEC
00 FF . . . FF 00 Data ECC
2352 bytes
Protective layer
(acrylic)
1.2 mm
Reflective layer thick
(aluminum)
Polycarbonate substrate Laser focuses on polycarbonate
(plastic) pits in front of reflective layer.
Data layer
Beam spot Land
Pit 1.2 µm
0.58 µm
Blu-ray
Track
laser wavelength
= 780 nm
0.1 µm
1.32 µm
DVD
405 nm
0.6 µm
650 nm
Serial recording
Data are laid out as a sequence of bits along each track
Data are read and written in contiguous blocks called physical records
Track 1
Track 0
Direction of
Bottom read/write
edge of tape
Track 3 4 8 12 16 20
Track 2 3 7 11 15 19
Track 1 2 6 10 14 18
Track 0 1 5 9 13 17
Direction of
tape motion
(b) Block layout for system that reads/writes four tracks simultaneously
Chapter 6
RAID
Magnetic disk
RAID level 0
Magnetic read and write
RAID level 1
mechanisms
RAID level 2
Data organization and formatting
RAID level 3
Physical characteristics
RAID level 4
Disk performance parameters
RAID level 5
Solid state drives RAID level 6
SSD compared to HDD
Optical memory
SSD organization
Compact disk
Practical issues
Digital versatile disk
Magnetic tape High-definition optical disks
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