Cell Structure and Function: Biology
Cell Structure and Function: Biology
Cell Structure and Function: Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Function
Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
Ribosome: Fimbriae: regulates entrance
site of protein synthesis hairlike bristles that and exit of molecules
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Inclusion body: Conjugation pilus:
stored nutrients for elongated, hollow
later use appendage used for
DNA transfer to other Nucleus:
Mesosome:
bacterial cells Cytoskeleton:
plasma membrane
maintains cell
that folds into the Nucleoid: shape and assists
cytoplasm and location of the bacterial movement of
increases surface area chromosome cell parts:
Endoplasmic
Plasma membrane: reticulum:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell
Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward
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Outline
Cellular Level of Organization
Cell theory
Cell size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
Nucleus and Ribosome
Endomembrane System
Other Vesicles and Vacuoles
Energy related organelles
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
2
Cell Theory
Detailed study of the cell began in the 1830s
A unifying concept in biology
Originated from the work of biologists Schleiden
and Schwann in 1838-9
States that:
All organisms are composed of cells
German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839
All cells come only from preexisting cells
German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s
Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of
organisms
3
Organisms and Cells
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a. c.
b. 50 m d. 140 m
protein
chloroplast
plant and mouse rose
animal frog egg
amino cells
acid
virus
ostrich
most bacteria human egg ant egg
atom
blue whale
electron microscope human
light microscope
human eye
5
Cell Size
Cells range in size from one millimeter down to
one micrometer
Cells need a large surface area of plasma
membrane to adequately exchange materials.
The surface‑area‑to‑volume ratio requires that
cells be small
Large cells - surface area relative to volume decreases
Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients
and produces wastes
Cells specialized in absorption utilize membrane
modifications such as microvilli to greatly increase
surface area per unit volume
6
Surface to Volume Ratio
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7
Microscopy Today: Compound Light
Microscope
Light passed through specimen
8
Compound Light Microscope
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85 µm
amoeba, light micrograph
eye
ocular lens
light rays
objective lens
specimen
condenser lens
light source
9
Microscopy Today: Transmission
Electron Microscope
Abbreviated T.E.M.
Electrons passed through specimen
Focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
Max magnification 1000,000sX
Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 m,
100,000X better than human eye
10
Transmission Electron Microscope
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200 nm
pseudopod segment, transmission electron
micrograph
electron source
electron beam
electromagnetic
condenser lens
specimen
electromagnetic
objective lens
electromagnetic
projector lens
observation screen
or
photographic plate
© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited
11
Microscopy Today: Scanning
Electron Microscope
Abbreviated S.E.M.
Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal
Electron beam scanned across surface of specimen
Metal emits secondary electrons
Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
12
Scanning Electron Microscope
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500 µ m
amoeba, scanning electron micrograph
electron gun
electron beam
electromagnetic
condenser
lenses
scanning coil
final
condenser electron
lens detector
secondary
electrons TV
specimen viewing
screen
13
Microscopy Today: Immunofluorescence
Light Microscope
Antibodies developed against a specific protein
Fluorescent dye molecule attached to antibody
molecules
Specimen exposed to fluorescent antibodies
Ultra-violet light (black light) passed through
specimen
Fluorescent dye glows in color where antigen is
located
Emitted light is focused by glass lenses onto human
retina
Allows mapping distribution of a specific protein
in cell
14
Microscopy Today: Confocal Microscopy
15
Microscopy and Amoeba proteus
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85 µm 200 nm 500 µm
amoeba, light micrograph pseudopod segment, transmission electron amoeba, scanning electron micrograph
micrograph
electromagnetic
objective lens
objective lens scanning coil
specimen
condenser lens
final
electromagnetic
Condenser electron
projector lens
lens detector
secondary
observation screen electrons TV
or specimen Viewing
light source photographic plate screen
16
Microscopy and Cheek Cells
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30 m 30 m 25 m 25 m 25 m
Bright-field. Light Bright-field (stained). Differential interference Phase contrast. Density Dark-field. Light is passed
passing through the Dyes are used to stain contrast. Optical methods differences in the through the specimen at
specimen is brought the specimen. Certain are used to enhance specimen cause light rays an oblique angle so that
directly into focus. Usually, components take up density differences within to come out of “phase.” the objective lens receives
the low level of contrast the dye more than other the specimen so that The microscope enhances only light diffracted and
within the specimen components, and therefore certain regions appear these phase differences so scattered by the object.
interferes with viewing all contrast is enhanced. brighter than others. This that some regions of the This technique is used to
but its largest components. technique is used to view specimen appear brighter view organelles, which
living cells, chromosomes, or darker than others. The appear quite bright against
and organelle masses. technique is widely used a dark field.
to observe living cells and
organelles.
(Bright field): © Ed Reschke; (Bright field stained): © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(Differential, Phase contrast, Dark field): © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
17
Prokaryotic Cells
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic
cells (which have a nucleus).
Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic
domains:
Bacteria
Archaea
Live in extreme habitats
Domains are structurally similar but biochemically
different
18
The Structure of Bacteria
Extremely small - 1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm long
Occur in three basic shapes:
Spherical coccus,
Rod-shaped bacillus,
Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible).
Cell Envelope includes:
Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with imbedded and peripheral
protein
Form internal pouches (mesosomes)
Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by
peptidoglycan
Glycocalyx - layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell
wall
Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)
19
The Structure of Bacteria
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spirillum
spirochete bacillus
coccus
20
The Structure of Bacteria
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protein
molecules
phospholipid
bilayer
21
The Structure of Bacteria
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Ribosome: Fimbriae:
site of protein synthesis hairlike bristles that
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Inclusion body:
Conjugation pilus:
stored nutrients
elongated, hollow
for
appendage used for
later use
Mesosome: DNA transfer to other
plasma membrane bacterial cells
that folds into the Nucleoid:
cytoplasm and location of the bacterial
increases surface area chromosome
Plasma membrane:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell
Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present Escherichia coli
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward
22
The Structure of Bacteria Cytoplasm &
Appendages
Cytoplasm
Semifluid solution
Bounded by plasma membrane
Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules, and enzymes.
Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA
molecule.
Plasmids are small accessory (extrachromosomal) rings of DNA
Appendages
Flagella – Provide motility
Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell
surface
Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from cell to
cell
23
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya includes:
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Cells contain:
Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA
Specialized organelles
Plasma membrane
Much larger than prokaryotic cells
Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell wall
24
Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
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Original
prokaryotic cell
DNA
aerobic
bacterium
mitochondrion
chloroplast
photosynthetic
bacterium
Animal cell
has mitochondria,
but not chloroplasts.
Plant cell
has both mitochondria
and chloroplasts.
25
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized
They contain small structures called organelles
Perform specific functions
Isolates reactions from others
Two classes of organelles:
Endomembrane system:
Organelles that communicate with one another
Via membrane channels
Via small vesicles
Energy related organelles
Mitochondria & chloroplasts
Basically independent & self-sufficient
26
Plasma Membrane
protein
molecules
phospholipid
bilayer
27
Cell Fractionation and Differential
Centrifugation
Cell fractionation is the breaking apart of
cellular components
Differential centrifugation:
Allows separation of cell parts
Separated out by size & density
Works like spin cycle of washer
The faster the machine spins, the smaller
the parts that are settled out
28
Cell Fractionation and Differential
Centrifugation
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29
Animal Cell Anatomy
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Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
regulates entrance and
exit of molecules
protein
30
Plant Cell Anatomy
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31
Nucleus
Command center of cell, usually near center
Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear envelope
Consists of double layer of membrane
Nuclear pores permit exchange between nucleoplasm
& cytoplasm
Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm
Chromatin contains DNA of genes, and proteins
Condenses to form chromosomes
Chromosomes are formed during cell division
Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA
Produces subunits of ribosomes
32
Anatomy of the Nucleus
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nuclear
envelope
nucleolus
phospholipid
(Bottom): Courtesy Ron Milligan/Scripps Research Institute; (Top right): Courtesy E.G. Pollock
33
Ribosomes
Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
Composed of rRNA
Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit
Subunits made in nucleolus
May be located:
On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it
“rough”), or
Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups, called
polyribosomes
34
Nucleus, Ribosomes, & ER
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Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
ER membrane
protein
4. An enzyme removes
the signal peptide. Lumen of ER
mRNA receptor
SRP
signal recognition
particle (SRP)
2. Signal recognition
3. SRP attaches to receptor (purple); particle (SRP) binds
a channel opens; and the to signal peptide.
polypeptide enters ER..
signal peptide
ribosomal
subunits nuclear pore
ribosome
mRNA
mRNA DNA
35
Endomembrane System
Series of intracellular membranes that
compartmentalize the cell
Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific
compartments within cell
Consists of:
Nuclear envelope
Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
Several types
Transport materials between organelles of system
36
Endomembrane System:
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
A system of membrane channels and saccules (flattened vesicles)
continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side
Protein anabolism
Synthesizes proteins
Modifies and processes proteins
Adds sugar to protein
Results in glycoproteins
Smooth ER
No ribosomes
Synthesis of lipids
Site of various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage
Forms transport vesicles
37
Endoplasmic Reticulum
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rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
0.08 m
© R. Bolender & D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited
38
Endomembrane System:
The Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
Modifies proteins and lipids
Receives vesicles from ER on cis (or inner face)
Packages them in vesicles
Prepares for “shipment” in v Packages them in
vesicles from trans (or outer face)
Within cell
Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
39
Golgi Apparatus
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secretion
transport saccules
vesicle
transport
vesicle
trans face
cis face
Golgi apparatus
Nucleus
0.1 m
Courtesy Charles Flickinger, from Journal of Cell Biology 49: 221-226, 1971, Fig. 1 page 224
40
Endomembrane System: Lysosomes
Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants)
Produced by the Golgi apparatus
Contain powerful digestive enzymes and are highly
acidic
Digestion of large molecules
Recycling of cellular resources
Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like tadpole losing tail)
Some genetic diseases
Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)
41
Lysosomes
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lysosome
a: Courtesy Daniel S. Friend; b: Courtesy Robert D. Terry/Univ. of San Diego School of Medicine
42
Animation
43
Endomembrane System: Summary
Proteins produced in rough ER and lipids from
smooth ER are carried in vesicles to the Golgi
apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus modifies these products and
then sorts and packages them into vesicles that
go to various cell destinations.
Secretory vesicles carry products to the
membrane where exocytosis produces
secretions.
Lysosomes fuse with incoming vesicles and
digest macromolecules.
44
Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary
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secretion
plasma
membrane
enzyme
Golgi apparatus
modifies lipids and proteins
lysosome from the ER; sorts them
contains digestive enzymes and packages them in
that break down worn-out vesicles
cell parts or substances
entering the cell at the
plasma membrane protein
transport vesicle
transport vesicle shuttles proteins to
shuttles lipids to various various locations such as
locations such as the the Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus
lipid
rough endoplasmic
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
reticulum synthesizes proteins and
synthesizes lipids and packages them in vesicles;
also performs various vesicles commonly go to
other functions the Golgi apparatus
ribosome Nucleus
45
Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes
Membrane-bounded vesicles
Enclose enzymes
However
Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in cytoplasm
(instead of ER)
Active in lipid metabolism
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide
H2O2
Toxic
Broken down to water & O2 by catalase
46
Peroxisomes
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100 nm
© S.E. Frederick & E.H. Newcomb/Biological Photo Service
47
Vacuoles
Membranous sacs that are larger than vesicles
Store materials that occur in excess
Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
Plants cells typically have a central vacuole
Up to 90% volume of some cells
Functions in:
Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products
Development of turgor pressure
Some functions performed by lysosomes in other eukaryotes
48
Vacuoles
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100 nm
© Newcomb/Wergin/Biological Photo Service
49
Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure
Bounded by double membrane
Inner membrane infolded
Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked to form
grana
Suspended in semi-fluid stroma
50
Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplasts
Membranous organelles (a type of plastid) that serve as the site of
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O
51
Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplasts
52
Chloroplast Structure
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a. 500 nm
outer thylakoid
membrane grana space stroma thylakoid membrane
double inner
membrane membrane
b.
53
Energy-Related Organelles: Mitochondria
Smaller than chloroplast
54
Mitochondrial Structure
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a. 200 nm
outer
membrane cristae matrix
double
inner
membrane
membrane
b.
55
The Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell shape
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
57
The Cytoskeleton: Actin Filament Operation
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actin filament
58
The Cytoskeleton: Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate in size between actin filaments and
microtubules
Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides
Vary in nature
From tissue to tissue
From time to time
Functions:
Support nuclear envelope
Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin cells tightly
together
59
The Cytoskeleton: Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made of two globular proteins
called and tubulin
Spontaneous pairing of and tubulin molecules
form structures called dimers
Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular
spirals of 13 dimers around
Assembly:
Under control of Microtubule Organizing Center
(MTOC)
Most important MTOC is centrosome
Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to
cause movement of organelles
60
The Cytoskeleton: Microtubule Operation
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ATP
vesicle
kinesin
kinesin receptor
61
The Cytoskeleton
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actin
subunit
Chara
a. Actin filaments
fibrous
subunits
peacock
b. Intermediate filaments
tubulin
dimer
chameleon
c. Microtubules
a(Actin): © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; b, c(Intermediate, Microtubules): © K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited; a(Chara): The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./photo by
Dennis Strete and Darrell Vodopich; b(Peacock): © Vol. 86/Corbis; c(Chameleon): © Photodisc/Vol. 6/Getty Images
62
Microtubular Arrays: Centrioles
Short, hollow cylinders
Composed of 27 microtubules
Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets
One pair per animal cell
Located in centrosome of animal cells
Oriented at right angles to each other
Separate during mitosis to determine plane of division
May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella
63
Cytoskeleton: Centrioles
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empty center
of centriole
one microtubule
triplet
(Middle): Courtesy Kent McDonald, University of Colorado Boulder; (Bottom): Journal of Structural Biology, Online by Manley McGill et al. Copyright 1976 by
Elsevier Science & Technology Journals. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier Science & Technology Journals in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance
Center 64
Cilia and Flagella
Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in
cell movement
Very different from prokaryote flagella
Outer covering of plasma membrane
Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules arranged in
9 pairs
In center are two single microtubules
This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella
In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than flagella
Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars
Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw
65
Structure of a Flagellum
Comparison of Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
67
Review
Cellular Level of Organization
Cell theory
Cell size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
Nucleus and Ribosome
Endomembrane System
Other Vesicles and Vacuoles
Energy related organelles
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
68
BIOLOGY
Chapter 4: pp. 59-84
10th Edition
Sylvia S. Mader
Function
Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
Ribosome: Fimbriae: regulates entrance
site of protein synthesis hairlike bristles that and exit of molecules
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Inclusion body: Conjugation pilus:
stored nutrients for elongated, hollow
later use appendage used for
DNA transfer to other Nucleus:
Mesosome:
bacterial cells Cytoskeleton:
plasma membrane
maintains cell
that folds into the Nucleoid: shape and assists
cytoplasm and location of the bacterial movement of
increases surface area chromosome cell parts:
Endoplasmic
Plasma membrane: reticulum:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell
Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor 69
Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display