Unit 302

Engineering principles

STUDENT VERSION
 Unit Aim
This unit is concerned with those engineering principles
that enhance the performance of engineering operations.
•The extraction, interpretation and use of a range of technical
information sources.
- It includes the use of basic calculations in Engineering
- Engineering science that enables the leaner to better
understand the behavior and properties of engineering
materials in order that appropriate materials may be
selected to satisfy specifications.
•The identification and application of quality control measures
that are relevant to engineering activities are also covered.
 Learning Outcomes

Unit 302: Engineering principles

Outcome 1 - Know how to interpret engineering information

Outcome 2 - Know how to differentiate between common

engineering materials

Outcome 3 - Know how to perform engineering calculations

Outcome 4 - Understand quality control in engineering

Unit 302: Engineering principles

Outcome #1
Engineering Information
 Engineering information
Engineers need to access information for a
range of reasons:

– Health and safety

– Standardization
– Planning
– Maintenance and repair
– Stock control
 Sources of information

A range of sources of information are available to engineers:

• BS EN or International standards
• Instruction manuals
• Technical handbooks
• Tables
• Charts
• Graphs
• Cause/effect diagrams
• Data sheets
• Text books
• Reference materials
• Computer applications
 British Standard Institution (BSI)

• BSI are an international organisation established

to produce standards.
• What are standards?

BSI describes a standard as:

A published specification that establishes a common language, and
contains a technical specification or other precise criteria and is
designed to be used consistently, as a rule, a guideline, or a
definition
 International Standard Organization (ISO)

• ISO is a federation of national standard bodies from 150

nations.
• Established in 1947 to support standardisation during
international trading.
• BSI is a member of this federation.
• European Standards (EN) was established as part of the
European union.
• ISO standards are common standards used throughout
the member countries.
 Examples of standards
• Standards are prefixed to identify their use:
– ISO – an international standard
– EN – a regional standard (Europe)
– BS – a national standard (UK)
• Although some standards are common to each

e.g. BS EN ISO 7810:1996 is the standard related to the

production of credit cards
 The use of standards
BS EN ISO 7810:1996 is the standard related to the
production of credit cards.

•Consider if every country produced different sized credit

cards.
•Travelers to other countries wouldn’t be able to use cash
machines to withdraw money.
•The BS EN ISO standards ensure all credit cards are the
same length, width and thickness. It also ensures the
information contained in the security strip can be read by
cash machines irrespective if its location.
 Technical Information
Technical information is available from a range of sources to
support engineering functions:

• Instruction manuals / text books

• Technical handbooks / reference materials
• Tables / charts

Instruction manuals / textbooks Examples:

•Car repair manuals

•Camera operating manual
•Flat packed furniture instructions
•Exam revision textbooks
•‘Learn how to’ textbooks (build a computer, learn to knit…)
 Technical Handbooks
Technical Handbooks Examples:
•Reference books (zeus books)
•Wiring diagrams
•Fault finding guides

Tables and Charts “Tapping drill sizes”

 Graphs and Charts

Graphs are used to present engineering data in a visual form rather than words and numbers.
These can drawn in a number of formats:

– Histograms (bar graphs)

– Scatter graphs
– Pie charts
 (charts)

Pie charts Histograms (bar charts)

 Scatter graphs

• Scatter graphs show a relationship between sets of

paired data.
• They can indicate if there is a relationship (correlation) or
not between the data sets.

Strong correlation. Moderate correlation. No correlation.

 Flow charts

• Simple flow charts

can lead engineers
through a process.
• Used extensively
for fault finding
reviewing
procedures.
• To see the overall
operational
sequencing.
 Gantt charts
• Gantt charts are a planning tool.
• Project activities are mapped against timescales.
- Shows the start and completion dates for tasks within
engineering project.
• Any deviation from the plan is easily identified
- Can track operational progress easily.
 Tally Charts
• Tally charts are an effective way to collect data
• They record instances of events
• They are simple but effective

Defect Mon Tue Weds Thurs Fri

Loose
bolts
Screw
missing
Too big

Too
small
 Ishikawa Diagrams
Ishikawa diagrams are also known as:
•Fishbone diagrams
•Herringbone diagrams
•Cause and effect diagrams

Created by Kaoru Ishikawa,

these are diagrams used to
identify the cause of an event.
• Man
•Methods
•Material
•Machine
•Environment
 Use of Computers in Engineering

• Engineers need to access information for a

range of reasons.
• Retrieval and storage of this information has
been made more efficient by the employment of
computer based system.
• Information can now be accessed from
anywhere in the world, at any time.
 Engineering Drawings Systems
Traditional Engineering Drawings without Computer Aid.

•Traditional engineering drawings were drawn by hand using pencil, pen

and paper.

•Revisions to drawings was slow and the ability to respond to problems

meant projects could stop while changes to drawings, procedures and
systems were agreed and updated.

•Companies working internationally would at times have to wait weeks for

new drawings to be produced and posted out the project location.
 Engineering Drawings Systems
The use of computer aided drawing (CAD) systems and the
internet have eliminated these problems in Traditional Drawings.

•CAD systems now allow engineering drawings to be completed quickly

and accurately.

•Changes to drawings can take minutes rather than having to re-draw

the component completely.

•Drawings can be emailed or accessed directly online from anywhere

with a internet connection.

•CAD has an advantage to use in 3D modelling and design to see the

overview of the object being drawn.
 CAD Drawing

• This drawing can be revised at very short notice so production is not

disrupted extensively.

• If cloud based storage is used by the manufacturing organisation, access

to this drawing is available 24/7.

• Could easily select and produce which views to plot or parts to produce
drawings and to make changes.

• It has ability to produce very accurate designs in which eliminate human

error.
 CAD COMMON TECHNICAL TERMS
• CAD
Computer-aided design. Engineering drawing produced on a computer.

• Center Point
The defining point at the exact center of a circle, arc, regular polygon or
ellipse.

• Dimension Line
A line, usually with an arrow indicating the direction and distance of a
drawing dimension

• Reference Points / Datum

A point from which the relationship of all other points is stablished
such in center point, radius and edge.
 CAD COMMON TECHNICAL TERMS

• Zoom
The way the view is changed by magnifying or reducing the image on the
screen. Zoom scales the view only and does not affect the actual size of
drawing.

• Rotate
A drawing editing tool which rotates objects or groups of objects based on a
center of rotation and an angle.

• Units
Unit of measure represented by numbers in a CAD program. Usually units
are inches or feet, but can be anything from millimeters to light years.
CAD Drawing
 The use of spreadsheets
• Spreadsheets allow users to compare sets of
data.
• Results can be displayed as charts and graphs
• Spreadsheets are made up of rows, columns
and cells
• Data is inserted into cells and can be
manipulated by formula.
• Formulas can be added to cells that allows
automatic updating as the data is changed
 Spreadsheets This cell has a
formula that
automatically
adds up the
totals

The formula in this cell

that multiplies E12 x
F12 If you decided to buy 30 clips (E12) updating the cell
would automatically change J12 and J 27
 Databases

• Databases have two main uses:

– Storing information
– Sorting information
• The sort of information that can be stored on a database
be:
– Contact details of company suppliers
– Parts lists and costs
– Employee details for HR departments
• Databases allow you to search for items within a
collection of information.
 Databases
Three Data Base Elements:
•Tables
A database table is composed of records and
fields that hold data. Tables are also called
datasheets. Each table in a database holds data
about a different, but related, subject.
 Databases
• Records
Data is stored in records. A record is composed of fields
and contains all the data about one particular person,
company, or item in a database.

In this database, a record contains the data for one customer support
incident report. Records appear as rows in the database table.
 Databases
• Fields
A field is part of a record and contains a single
piece of data for the subject of the record.
It is a subsection of a record in database.

Fields appear as columns in a database table.

 Databases
• It can provide setup sheets, tool lists, images, and other
vital information required to manufacture parts? This
information may be accessed from PCs.
 Use of Databases
• CNC program is one of the best application to organized
using database.
• In a car parts company, inputting a registration number
would provide a list of all parts stocked for that particular
car.
• Clicking on ‘wipers’ would provide all the types of wipers
available from that company:
– Different makes
– Costs
– Front or rear

• Searching a database is known as a query.

 Use of Drawing in Engineering
• Engineering drawings are the most important
communication required for manufacture.
• Can be used as reference to determine whether parts
structures meet the specifications.
• From a two dimensional representation, the engineering
must be able to manufacture a diverse selection of
products.
• These products can range from a simple hinge to a
nuclear power station.
• Interpretation of engineering drawings is an important
skill that needs to be developed.
Note: Method of manufacture and parts list is not always included in an
Engineering drawing
 Engineering Drawing Information
• Engineering drawings provide the information required to manufacture
a product.
• Components detail drawing provides information such as:
– Required machining operation
– Component sizes/dimensions
– Technical data
– Surface protection
– Quality requirements
– Title Block
Surface finish
Tolerances
Title of the drawing
Unit of measurement and Scale
Name of draftsperson
Drawing number and issue date
Type of orthographic projection
Type of material to be used
 Engineering Drawing Information
• Surface Finish
Also known as surface texture, defined by the three
characteristics of lay, surface roughness, and waviness.
Note: Surface finish specification required for a machine operation can
be found on the component details od the drawing.
• Tolerance
Tolerance is the difference between the upper and lower
limit.
  The permissible limits of variation in a physical
dimension.
• Scale
The ratio of measurement between the actual size dimensions of
the object and the dimensions measurement in the drawing.
 Types of Drawings
Orthographic Projection
•Orthographic projection provides a method of representing a 3
dimensional object in 2 dimensions.
•Orthographic projection provides views of a component from various
directions.
•The directions viewed are usually the front, end elevation and a plan.
•There are two methods of orthographic projection:
•Type of Orthographic projection used can be seen in the Title Block of
the drawing.
• 1st angle
• 3rd angle
 1st Angle Projection
1st angle projection is represented by the following symbol:

This system is usually used in the UK and Europe

 3rd Angle Projection
3rd angle projection is represented by the following symbol:

This system is usually used in the USA

 Drawing

Isometric Drawing
• Isometric drawing is a method of
3 dimensional representation of a
component
• It is based on 600/300 layout.

Oblique Drawing
•Oblique drawing is a method of 3
dimensional representation of a
component
•It is based on 450 layout.
 Abbreviations and Symbols
• Standard abbreviations and symbols are used extensively on
engineering drawings.
• Rather than write the name of a component or trying to draw
it, symbols are used.
• Symbols and abbreviations are agreed in British, European
and International standards documents.
• One standard where graphical symbols are defined is BS
1553:1970
• Symbols are used extensively to represent electronic
components in circuit diagrams
• Symbols are identified within BS EN 60617
 Welding Symbols
• Welding symbols provide
size, shape and position
information that allows a
welder to complete the
required joint.

Machining Symbols
Surface texture symbols represent the quality of finish of a surface

Symbol indicating
the surface Material removal is Material removal
required by prohibited
machining
 Machining Symbols
• All machined faces will consist of a range
of peaks and hollows known as
roughness
• Surface finish is an indication of the
roughness value (Ra) of a machined face
measured in micrometers (µm or one
millionth of a metre)
• Ra is the arithmetical mean value of the
peaks and hollows

International roughness gauge values

are indicated by N1 – N12

0.4 N5
 Machining Symbols
• Limits and fits between holes and shafts can be
identified by dimensioning <figure 302.7>
 Machining Symbols
• Limits and fits
between holes and
shafts can also be
identified by
symbols
 Machining Symbols
Concentricity:
sometimes called coaxially, is a tolerance that controls the
central axis of the referenced feature, to a datum axis

Circularity
symbol is used to describe how close an object should be
to a true circle.
 Machining Symbols
Cylindricity symbol:
is used to describe how close an object conforms to a true
cylinder

True Position 
is the exact coordinate, or location defined by basic
dimensions or other means that represents the nominal
value.
 Piping Layouts

• Although full 3D drawings of piping

systems are available, they can be
complicated and time consuming
to produce
• Line drawings with symbols to
represent key components are
simpler produce and on some
projects can be easier to
understand
 Document Control
• Document control is important in an engineering
organisation.
• A system should be in place to ensure:
– All documents are centrally stored.
– All documents have issue number to enable the
version of the document to be verified easily .
– Issue into production is managed
– Return of document following use is monitored
– Only the current version is available for production
 Conclusion

In this part, you learned

•Sources of information
•Engineering Drawings Systems
•Databases
•Drawing Abbreviations and Symbols
 Group Discussion
• Consider the use of engineering documents, including
drawings, within your organisation.
• How are drawings issued to you for the next task?
• Who checks they are the latest version?
• Who checks they are returned?
• Do you keep drawings in your toolbox because “we
make the same product on a regular basis”?
• If no system is in place, what are the risks to your
company?
 on s ?
u es ti
any q
ha ve
Do you
 Q&A
1. What are Gantt charts used for?
………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What does flow charts used to show?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Which one of the following types of chart should be used to show start
and completion dates for tasks within engineering project?
……………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Data contained in a spreadsheet may be manipulated by

……………………………………………………………………………………………
 Q&A
5. Which one of the following describes the subsection of a record in a
database?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Which one of the following types of information is best organized using

a database?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. What do CAD systems, used to produce engineering drawings enable

the designer to do?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. What packages used to produce engineering drawings on a computer?

………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
9. Which one of the following is an advantage of using a CAD system?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

10. With respect to CAD, what is a reference point?

………………………………………………………………………………………….

11. Documents are given an issue number to ………..

………………………………………………………………………………………….

12. A reference point is a point from which

………………………………………………………………………………………….

13. Which one of the following cannot be used as a datum?

………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
14. Where can information on the type of orthographic projection be found
on an engineering drawing?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

15.A tolerance band is …………

………………………………………………………………………………………….
Unit 302: Engineering principles

Outcome #2
Engineering Materials
 Engineering Materials

• Engineering products are manufactured from a

wide range of materials.
• Selection of a suitable material for a component
depends on its characteristics.
• Selecting the most appropriate material depends
on a number of factors particularly a products
operating conditions.
 Material Characteristics
Typical characteristics
•Strength
•Rigidity
•Temperature stability
•Wear resistance
•Acoustic absorption
•Shock absorption
•Corrosion resistance
•Hardness
•Toughness
•Ductility
•Plasticity
 Strength
• The strength of a material is determined by the application of a
tensile (stretching) load until the material fractures or yields.
• Standard test pieces are placed in a tensile testing machine and a
load applied until fracture.
• The maximum force applied to this test piece is measured and is
referred to as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
• Depending on the material the UTS may, or not, be the force at
breaking point.
• Strength measures how much stress can be applied to an element
before it deforms permanently or fractures.
Strength
 Rigidity
• Rigidity is the ability to resist defection under the
application of a force.
• Rigidity is an important characteristic in the design of
buildings. For example, roof beams must be able to
resist the forces applied by heavy snowfalls.
• One of the materials that has greatest rigidity is steel.
• Whilst a material can demonstrate rigidity, the form can
improve its resistance to applied forces.
Flat bar supported in this form will
demonstrate poor rigidity

Rotating the flat improve the forms

rigidity
 Thermal Stability

• The ability to resist a change in shape or size as

its temperature changes.
• Most, but not all materials expand as their
temperature increases.
• Allowances during manufacture needs to be
made for expansion and contraction.
• There needs to be gaps between railway tracks
or they will buckle as they expand in the sun.
 Other Thermal Characteristics

• Thermal conductivity:

The ability of a material to allow heat to flow through it.

• Thermal resistance (insulation):

The ability of a material to resist the flow of heat.

 Electrical Characteristics

• Electrical conductivity:

The ability of a material to allow electricity to flow

through it.
- Most common metal which has good conductivity that
being used in electrical wires is copper.

• Electrical resistance (insulation):

The ability of a material to resist the flow of electricity.

 Engineering Materials

• Engineering materials come in a range of types, sizes

and shapes.
• Each material has a particular range of properties
• The selection of the correct material to suit a given
application or environment is essential
• Incorrect selection can lead to expensive re-work or
complete failure of the finished component
 Ferrous Metals

• Ferrous metals contain iron (Fe)

• Pure iron is a relatively weak material and not suitable
for modern engineering products.
• The addition of small amounts of carbon (C) produces
steel.
• Steel is the most widely used engineering material.
 Steel
• Steel is an alloy (mixture) of iron and carbon.
• Steel is one of the materials that has greatest
rigidity is steel.
• The percentage of carbon influences the
properties of the steel.
• Other metals can be added in small amounts to
change steel properties further.

note: an Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.

 Steel
Adding of materials to steel would mean:
•Vanadium (V)
Improves toughness, strength, hardness, wear
resistance and resistance to shock impact.

•Nickel (NI)
•Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing
ductility and toughness. It also increases resistance to
corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures when
introduced in suitable quantities in high-chromium
(stainless) steels.
 Steel
• Chromium (CR)
Increases tensile strength, hardness,
hardenability, toughness, resistance to wear and
abrasion, resistance to corrosion, and scaling at
elevated temperatures.

Carbon (C)
It raises tensile strength, hardness, and
resistance to wear and abrasion. It lowers
ductility, toughness and machinability.
 Steel
• Silicon (SI)
It increases tensile and yield strength, hardness,
forgeability and magnetic permeability.
Note: Silicon is crystalline
• Copper (CU)
Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion
resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%.
 Steel
Types of carbon steel
•Low carbon steel (LCS)
– contains up to 0.29% carbon
– easily welded by a range of processes
– easily formed into a range of shapes
– sometimes known as mild steel

•Medium carbon steel (MCS)

– harder and stronger than LCS
– contains from 0.3% to 0.54 carbon
– Can be welded by a range of processes
– Can be formed into a range of shapes
– post production heat treatment may be required
 Steel
• High carbon steel (HCS)
– hardest of the carbon steels
– hardness levels lead to a brittle material
– contains from 0.55% to 1.2% carbon
– difficult to weld
– can not be formed due to brittleness.
– may need to be annealed prior to machining
– post production hardening and tempering may
be required.
 Low Alloy Steels
• All steels are alloys (iron + carbon)
• Some steels have small additions (up to 7%) of other
materials to improve their properties.
Alloying element % Benefit
Chromium 0.5 - 2 Increased hardenability
Vanadium 0.15 Increases strength
Silicon 0.2 – 0.7 Increases strength
Nickel 2-5 Increases toughness
Molybdenum 0.2 - 5 Increases toughness

• Adding tungsten in alloyed steel will increase red

hardiness and toughness.
 Cast Irons

• Cast iron is a ferrous alloy with typically 2 – 4% carbon

• Additions of silicon improves fluidity when molten
• Usually brittle except for malleable cast iron
• Good compressive strength
• Good machinability and self lubricating due to excess of
carbon (graphite).
 Cast Iron Types
Cast iron is available in 4 main types:

•White Cast Iron

•high compressive strength
•Hard with a good resistance to wear
•Grey Cast Iron
•good machinability
•good resistance to wear and galling
•Ductile Cast Iron
•high strength
•high ductility
•Malleable Cast Iron
•White cast iron heat-treated to improve ductility
 Stainless Steels
• Stainless steels is the best example of having high
resistance with corrosion in which mainly being used in
Engineering.
• Stainless steels contain a minimum of 10.5% chromium
• It is mostly supplied in sheets.
• Other metals can be added to improve properties
including:
• Nickel
• Molybdenum
• Titanium
• Copper
 Non-Ferrous Metals

• Non-ferrous metals contain no iron (Fe)

• Non-ferrous metals are generally more expensive than
ferrous metals
• Normally selected for the a range of properties including:
• Low weight
• High conductivity
• Non-magnetic
• Corrosion resistance.
 Aluminium
• Pure aluminium is a relatively weak material
• Alloying can dramatically improve strength
• The addition of silicon improves fluidity for casting
• Additions of copper provides a marked increase in strength but can
reduce ductility and corrosion resistance.
• Aluminium/copper allows are used in the aerospace sector.
• The addition of manganese provides a increase in strength with no
appreciable reduction in ductility and corrosion resistance
• An important characteristic of aluminium is the thin oxide layer that
forms when exposed to the atmosphere.
• If the oxide layer is scratched it quickly reforms providing excellent
corrosion resistance.
• The oxide layer can be thickened and coloured by anodising
 Copper

• Copper is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity

• Wire is most easily produced from copper.
• It is soft and ductile that is easily formed and drawn into
wire.
• High corrosion resistance
• Copper increases in strength and hardness as it is cold
worked
• Extensively alloyed with other metals to produce a range
of engineering metals
 Copper Alloys
• Brass
– 70% copper, 30% zinc
– Known as cartridge brass due to its use in ammunitions
• Bronze
– Alloy of copper and tin plus either zinc or phosphorous
– Copper, tin and phosphorous is known as phosphor bronze
– Copper, tin and zinc is known as gunmetal
Note: Simple method of identifying brass from zinc alloy die is by
color.
 Nickel
• Silver white, tough and stronger than steel
• Non magnetic
• Used in coin production
• Used extensively as an alloying element
• Corrosion resistant
• The majority of stainless steels contain 8-10% nickel to
improve
• Nickel/copper alloys have high strength corrosion
resistance (monel).
 Lead
• Lead is a poisonous material
• Heavy and very malleable ( soft /flexible )
• Corrosion resistant
• Used as a base for solders
• Corrosion resistance and malleability see lead used
widely for roof flashings
• Used as a radioactive barrier
• It is being used in Lead acid battery.
• Used for soldering that provides a semi permanent join
of metals.
 Titanium
• Titanium is low weight, high strength with good corrosion
resistance.
• Unalloyed, titanium can be as strong as steel but 45% lighter
• It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity
• Titanium is used as a steel alloying element to reduce grain
size
• It is also alloyed with aluminium and vanadium to produce
high strength, light weight materials for the aerospace
industry.
 Corrosion
Corrosion ( Oxidation)
• Is the gradual degradation of a metal because of a
chemical or electrochemical reaction to its surrounding
environment
•Oxidation the presence of Oxygen and Moisture on all
metallic materials

•Corrosion resistance 
Refers to how well a substance (especially a metal) can
withstand damage caused by oxidization or other chemical
reactions on a metal materials.
 Types of Corrosion
Corrosion takes many forms:
Galvanic corrosion
Rusting
Direct chemical attack

•Galvanic Corrosion
- Reaction occurs when different metals are in contact.
•Rusting
• Rusting requires water and oxygen to occur, and is
accelerated in the presence of acids and other electrolytes.
It is a brown substance that forms on iron or steel.
 Corrosion
There are three conditions required for
corrosion to occur

•Electricity
•Moisture
•Air
 Electricity

• Electricity will be generated when an anode and

cathode are metallically connected within an electrolyte
• An electrolyte is a liquid that conducts electricity
• Electricity flows from the anode (+) to the cathode (-)
• When dissimilar metals are connected in this manner
the anode and cathode are established based upon
their galvanic table position
• The establishment of anode and cathode during the
corrosion of single metals is different
 Galvanic Corrosion
• Dissimilar metals within
an electrolyte will form
a simple electric cell
• Which metals becomes
the cathode depends
upon its position within
the galvanic scale
• The anode will always
experience an
increased level of
corrosion
 Galvanic Scale
• Dissimilar metals in a damp
environment will produce an
electric cell
• The more active material
(anode) will corrode at the
expense of the noble
(cathode) material
• The further apart two
materials are in the galvanic
series the worse the
corrosion at the anode
• In a dissimilar material
situation the anode will
corrode faster than it would
on its own.
 Galvanic Corrosion Example
• A copper pipe fitted to a steel water tank will mean the
steel area around the copper fitting corrode quicker than
if a steel pipe was used
• Stainless steel bolts used on a steel fabrication
 Galvanic Corrosion
• Considerations at the design stage must be made to
prevent the accelerated corrosion due to galvanic
reactions.
• Reference to the galvanic series needs to be made,
especially when the dissimilar metals are far apart on the
scale
 Leaching
• Leaching is corrosion caused by the removal of an element from an
alloy mixture.
• One common form of leaching is dezincification, the loss of zinc
from the brass alloy.
• Brass is an alloy of zinc and copper.
• Zinc is more corrosive than copper.
• In some environments, the zinc will corrode within the alloy
• The removal of zinc from the alloy (leaching) will leave behind a
weak structure of copper.
• It may look strong but is has been severely weakened.
 Rusting
• Iron oxide (Fe2O3)is commonly known as rust
• Rusting of steel is the oxidisation of the iron within the
alloy
• Rusting is an electrochemical reaction that requires an
anode and a cathode.
• As the metal corrodes the electrolyte provides oxygen to
the anode
• As oxygen combines with the metal electrons from the
anode to the cathode
• This flow of electrons causes the anode to break down in
the form of rust
 Rusting
• When a rain drop hits steel it instantly combines with
CO2 in the air to form carbonic acid which is an improved
electrolyte
• The acid causes the iron to dissolve and the water
breaks down into oxygen and hydrogen
• The oxygen and dissolved iron bond to form iron oxide
(rust)
• The chemicals within acid rain and sea water provide
better electrolytes and speed up the corrosion
• Rust is permeable and allows further moisture to come
into contact with the newly exposed iron, allowing the
corrosion process to continue
 Conclusion

In this part, you learned

•Engineering Materials
•Materials characteristics
 Metal Treatment and Processes
Annealing
Annealing involves heating steel to a specified temperature and then cooling at a very
slow and controlled rate to Soften a metal for cold working, Improve machinability
and enhance electrical conductivity.

Quenching
Is a mechanical process in which steel and cast iron alloys are strengthened and
hardened.
When heating carbon still above its upper critical temperature and then rapidly
cooling it by quenching in oil will increase hardiness of the steel.
Note: Testing of hardness thru vickers hardness testing
machine that uses Pyramidal diamond as the indentor.
 Metal Treatment and Processes
Extrusion:
Is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional
 profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-
section.
note: Variable cross section through its length is designed that
would prevent it from being formed by extrusion.
Forging:
If the metal is deformed work hardening effects are negated by
the recrystallization process (by slowly heating and cooling in
air). Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece.
Forging can attain the desired thermal conductivity
of the conductive materials.
 Metal Treatment and Processes
Shearing:
Plasticity of materials at room temperature.
 Common measuring tools & tools for marking
out
External Micrometer and Vernier caliper:
Is a precision measurement tool that can measure outside and inside
components. Includes Inside and outside diameter of a round bar object like
shaft.
•Vernier caliper - The most appropriate measuring instrument to achieved
an accuracy of +/- 0.2 mm.
•Micrometer - Used to obtain very fine measurements .
Metric micrometers typically measure in 0.01mm increments and imperial
versions in 0.001 inches.

Surface table, marking medium and scribing block:

Equipment use to do mark out or lay out of the large workpiece
for machining.
 Common measuring tools, tools for marking out
Center Punch:
Used for marking the centers of holes to be drilled to allow a
drill to make a hole at the same spot without slipping.
Note; center punch is not to be used as scriber

Templates:
a pattern made of metal, plastic, or paper, used for making
many copies of a shape or to help cut material accurately.
Using templates will help reduce material wastage and
increased production.
 Drilling Machine and Grinding Machine
Drilling Machine:
It makes a holes of a set size in material.
- Guard, lock off switch and machine light are the Safety equipment
of drilling machine
Note: Any Table misallignment on a drilling machine can be checked
with a DTI on the table checking the spindle.

Grinding Machine:
 The grinding machine is a type of tool that is utilized for grinding work
pieces. It basically use an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool.
- Guard on an off-hand grinding machines contain wheel bursts, to
prevent operator contact and protect the wheel.
Note: If the gap between the work rest and grinding wheel is more
than 3 mm. there is an increase possibility of injury to the operator.
 on s ?
u es ti
any q
ha ve
Do you
 Q&A
1. Corrosion (Oxidation) of plain carbon steel always occurs when ______.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Which of the following metals that is most likely being supplied in

sheets?
………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. Nickel is added to steel to increase ___________.

………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. What is the effect in alloyed steel if there is a presence of tungsten.

………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
5. What kind of material that occurs oxidation on the surfaces.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. What is the main characteristic of stainless still ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. What is silicon?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. What is the simplest method to identify the brass castings from zinc alloy
die?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Galvanic corrosion occurs when __________.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
10. What is the most appropriate instrument that will accurately measure a
turned shaft of diameter 20 mm and length of 100 mm?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

11. The equipment used to mark out a large cast iron for machining are…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

12. Drilling machine safety equipment includes ……………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

13. The purpose of a guard on an off-hand grinding machines are to……..

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

14. When the gap between the work rest and grinding wheel is more than 3
mm, there is an increased possibility of ________.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
15. A table misalignment on drilling machine can be checked with a …..
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

16. Which one of the following design features of a component would

prevent it from being formed by extrusion?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

17. What is the benefits of using templates for marking out?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

18. The plasticity of a material at room temperature is most important for

which one of the following processes?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
19. Carbon fibers introduced into plastic materials enable them to compete
with metals by _______
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

20. What will result from heating high carbon steel above its upper critical
temperature and then rapidly cooling it by Quenching in oil?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

21. Soldering is carried out ___________.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

22. Wire is most easily produced from which of the following metals?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

23.Stainless steel is mainly used in engineering due to its high ___.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
24. Re-crystallization may be achieved by ______.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

25. Which symbols shown in the diagram represents

an isolating valve in a pipe system?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

26. Which is the following geometric tolerances is required to be met on the

component shown in the drawing?
a)Parallel +/- 0.1 mm to datum A
b)Concentric +/- 0.1 mm to a datum A
c)Perpendicular within +/- 0.1 mm to datum A
d)Square within +/- 0.1 mm to datum A
 Q&A

27. Which of the following symbols represents removal of material by

machining?

28. Which of the following symbols represents concentricity?

a) b) c) d)
 Q&A
29. Which one of the following conventional representation symbols shown
in the diagram is drawn incorrectly?

30. A tolerance of ±0.1 mm is required for a turned shaft of 25.00 mm

diameter, what is the minimum acceptable diameter?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
31. Referring to the drawing shown, how many 1 m x 2 m sheets of
aluminum are required to produce 250 angle support brackets?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

32. What is the correct speed for drilling an 8 mm diameter hole into
aluminum?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Q&A
33. Which one of the following is a suitable temperature range for tempering
plain carbon steel?
………………………………………………………………………………………….….

34. Which one of the following is usually used as a reinforcing

material for the manufacture of non-metallic car bodies?
……………………………………………………………………………………

35. Which of the following should not be used for scribing lines?
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Unit 302: Engineering principles

Outcome #3
Know how to perform engineering
calculations
 Degrees of Accuracy
A number can either be written to a number of
significant figures or a number of decimal places.
•1.98735 = 1.987 to 4 significant figures
= 1.987 to 3 decimal places

•2.8567 = 2.86 to 3 significant figures

= 2.86 to 2 decimal places
Decimal Fractions
 Standard Form
• 300000 can be written as 3 x 105
• 0.000003 can be written as 3 x 10-5

• Very large or small numbers can be written in this

manner

Example:
The sun is 93 million miles away (93000000)
or
9.3 x 107
 Sizes
• Nominal Size – Approximate size used for the purpose of
identification such as stock material.

• Basic Size – Is the theoretical exact size from which limits of size
are determined by the application of allowances and tolerances.

• Tolerance – The total amount by which a given dimension may vary

or the difference between the limits.

• Limits – The extreme maximum and minimum sizes specified by a

toleranced dimension.
 Areas of a square
• How do you calculate the area of a square?

Area = axa
Or
a = side2
Or
= a2

Remember:
The sides of a square are equal. If you know one, you know
the others.
 Areas of a square
• If you know the area of a square how do you
calculate the length of its side?

Area = a2

Lengths of side = √area

a2

Remember:
The sides of a square are equal. If you know one, you know
the others.
 Areas of a square
• Examples: calculate areas
9.6

Area = side2
= 9.62
= 92.16

4.5

Area = side2
= 4.52
= 20.25
 Areas of a square
• Examples: calculate length of side

Area = 115mm2
Length of side = area
= 115
= 10.724mm

Length of side = area

Area = 19.2m2 = 19.2
= 4.382m
 Pythagoras
If you know how to:
•calculate the area of a square knowing the length
of the side

AND
•calculate the length of the side of a square knowing
the area

You can apply Pythagoras' theorem

 Pythagoras
• Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician
(580 – 500BC)
• He discovered an amazing rule about right
angled triangles (his theorem)
• Pythagoras’ theorem:

a2 + b2 = c2
 Calculate the hypotenuse
Solution

C2 = 6 2 + 8 2
C
6 C2 = 36 + 64
C2 = 100
8
C = 100
Simplified: C = 10

5
3

4
3:4:5 triangles are very important in Pythagoras
 Calculating the shorter sides
• In the example of calculating the hypotenuse
36 + 64 = 100
• But remember:
100 – 36 = 64
100 – 64 = 36

If we know any two sides we can calculate the third

 Calculate the unknown side
Solution
12.7 B2 = 12.72 - 7.32
7.3
B2 = 161.29 - 53.29
B2 = 214.58
B
B = 214.58
B = 14.649
Calculate the unknown side

11.4 C 6.99
A 0.87 3.64

8.6 1.34 B
 Straight Line Graphs

Coordinates are
across first, then
up (or down)
Example
 Identifying the sides of a triangle

The hypotenuse:
•is opposite the right angle (900) Hypotenuse
Opposite
•is the longest side in a right
angled triangle.
Θ
Adjacent
The other two sides are identified in relation to an angle:

The opposite:
•Is always opposite the angle being used for calculations
The adjacent:
•Is always next to the angle being used for calculations
 Trigonometry
The most commonly used
trigonometric functions are: Hypotenuse
Opposite

•Sine
Θ
•Cosine
•Tangent • Sine Θ = Opposite ÷ Hypotenuse

Identifying which function to use

depends on the known side, the
angle and the side to be
calculated
 Sine Rule

32
Sine Θ = Opposite ÷ Hypotenuse = 12 ÷32 = 0.375
12

If you know sine Θ you can find the angle:

On the calculator
0.375 sin-1 = 22.020

If you know the angle you can find the sin:

On the calculator
22.02 sin = .375
 Sine Rule Example

? Opp
180mm
Sin Hyp
340

• From the diagram I need to calculate the length of the hypotenuse

• Using the formula triangle, hold your finger over the “ hyp” to indicate the
calculation (Opp ÷ sin Θ)
• The sin of 340 is 0.559 (from calculator)
• Hypotenuse = 180 ÷ 0.559 = 322mm
 Cosine Rule

Hypotenuse

Θ
Adjacent

• Cosine Θ = Adjacent ÷ Hypotenuse

 Cosine Rule

38
Cosine Θ = Adjacent ÷ Hypotenuse = 15 ÷38 = 0.395

Θ
15
If you know cosine Θ you can find the angle:
On the calculator
0.395 cos-1 = 66.70

If you know the angle you can find the cosine:

On the calculator
66.7 cos = .395
 Tangent Rule

Opposite

Θ
Adjacent

• Tangent Θ = Opposite ÷ Adjacent

 Tangent Rule

41 Tangent Θ = Opposite ÷ Adjacent = 41 ÷30 = 1.367

Θ
30
If you know tangent Θ you can find the angle:
On the calculator
1.367 tan-1 = 53.80

If you know the angle you can find the tangent:

On the calculator
53.8 tan= 1.367
 What are Machines?
• Machines make doing work
easier.

• Simple machines have only one

working part

• Levers are an example of a

simple machine

Using a Lever
 Three Classes of Levers
Effort Load

Class 1

Load

Class 2

Effort
Load

Class 3

Effort
 Levers in Balance
1.5m 1.5m
5N 5N

For levers to balance the MOMENTS must be the same.

A moment is calculated by multiplying the load (Newton) by
the distance from the fulcrum (or pivot) (metre)
The unit of a moment is newton/metre (Nm)
Moments are identified as either clockwise or anti-clockwise
 Calculating Moments
What force is required to balance the lever?

2.5m 1.5m
6N ?

Anti-clockwise moment = Clockwise moment

6N x 2.5m = ?N x 1.5m
15 ÷ 1.5 = 10

Proof 6 x 2.5 = 10 x 1.5

15N/m = 15N/m
 Calculating Moments
Irrespective of the class of lever the calculation method is the same.
2m

8m
12N

Anti-clockwise moment = Clockwise moment

?N x 2m = 12N x 8m
N = 96 ÷ 2
N = 48N
Proof
48 x 2 = 12 x 8
96N/m = 96N/m
 Calculating Moments
Irrespective of the class of lever the calculation method is the same.
7.5m
?

3.5m 45N

Anti-clockwise moment = Clockwise moment

45N x 3.5m = ?N x 7.5m
157.5 ÷ 7.5 = N
21 = N
Proof
45 x 3.5 = 21 x 7.5
157.5N/m = 157.5N/m
 Torque

• Torque is a moment that causes rotation about an axis

• The torque being applied by the spanner to this nut is calculated in a

similar way as previous lever examples.
• Torque applied = (.3 x 20) + (.6 x 10) = 12N/m
 Couples

If we consider a tap wrench, then a force or torque is

applied from both sides.

This is called a couple.

The effort of a couple is double that of a spanner.

Consider a 300 mm tap wrench with 50 N force applied at

each end.

Couple = 2 x Force x distance

Couple = 2 x 50 N x 0.15 m
Couple = 15 Nm
Work
 Force

• Force is a relationship between a bodies mass and

acceleration
• The unit of force is the Newton
• 1 Newton is the force needed to give a 1Kg mass an
acceleration of 1m per second2 (m/s2)
• Force = mass (kg) x distance (m)
 Energy

• Energy is the capacity to do work

• The unit of energy is the joule (same as work)

Energy cannot be created or destroyed:

• Electrical energy is converted to mechanical by a motor
• Mechanical energy is converted to heat by friction
Power
 Electrical Power
Relationship between voltage, resistance and watts
•An ampere is defined as 1 coulomb of electrons passing
one point in one second
•A joule is the amount of energy needed to move 1
coulomb of charge between 2 points
•A watt is 1 joule of work per second

•Therefore:

Power (watts) = voltage (volts) x current (amps)

 Heat and Temperature

• If you place your hand on a cold surface heat will

transfer from your hand into the cold surface.
• Your hand will get colder and the surface warmer
• Heat will always transfer from a hot body to a cooler one
 Heat and Temperature

• There is a difference between temperature and quantity

of heat.
• A spark from a grinder is approx. 15000C but is not
uncomfortable is it strikes the skin
• Water of 1000C against the skin will cause a nasty burn
• Quantity of heat is a form of energy so is measured in
Joules (j)
 Quantity of Heat Energy

• The quantity of heat energy, Q, required to raise the

temperature of a substance depends upon:
 
• the mass, m, of the substance—the larger the mass, the greater the
heat energy required
• the specific heat capacity, c, of the substance
• the temperature change, t — the greater the change in
temperature, the larger the quantity of heat energy required:
 Quantity of Heat Energy

Quantity of heat energy = mass x specific heat capacity x

temperature change
or
Q = mct

•The SI unit for quantity of heat is the joule (abbreviation J).

•The units kilo joule (1 kJ = 103 J) and mega joule (1 MJ = 106
J) are also used.
 Example
Calculate the amount of heat, in mega joules, that is
necessary to raise 5 kg of water from 20°C to 100°C.
Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 J/kg0C

•Q = mct
•Q = 5 x 4200 x (100 – 20) = 1 680 000J = 1.68 MJ
 Specific Latent Heat
• When a substance changes state (e.g. when we melt metal we
change it from a solid to a liquid) it uses heat energy for the
transformation to take place. To enable this to happen heat is
added just to change the state and no change in temperature takes
place.
• When a change of state is from solid to liquid this is called the
specific latent heat of fusion, and
• when a change of state is from liquid to vapour this is called the
specific latent heat of vaporisation.
 Specific Latent Heat
For example, 1 kg of water at a temperature of 1000C requires 2257 kJ of
heat energy to convert it into steam at the same temperature, i.e. the
specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is 2257 kJ/kg
The symbol for latent heat is ‘h’.
The table gives typical values of latent heat, h, at atmospheric pressure:
Substance Specific latent heat of Specific latent heat of
fusion (kJ/kg) vaporisation (kJ/kg)

Water 334 2257

Mercury _ 290
Carbon dioxide (CO2) _ 364
Oxygen _ 243
Aluminium 9130  
Copper 3850  
Lead 1260  
Steel 4200  
 Specific Latent Heat
• As energy can neither be created nor destroyed, so likewise upon cooling
the same amount of heat energy is given up by the substance during
transformation.
• So, if heat energy is being added to a substance and there is no rise in
temperature, then the substance must be undergoing a change of state.
• The quantity of latent heat, Q required to change the state of a substance
depends upon:
• the mass, m, of the substance—the larger the mass, the greater the heat
energy required
• the specific latent heat, h, of the substance.
• Thus Quantity of latent heat energy = mass x latent heat
or
Q = mh
 Specific Latent Heat
• The specific latent heat required to melt ice is 335 kJ/kg. Find the quantity
of latent heat required to melt 3 kg of ice at 00C.
• where m = 3 kg h = 335 kJ/kg = 335 000 J/kg

• Q = mh
• Q = 3 x 335 000
• Q = 1 005 000 J
• Q = 1.005 MJ
 Expansion

• When most materials are heated, expansion occurs in all

directions.

• As a materials cools contraction takes place.

• The effect of expansion and contraction depends on the

amount of temperature change of the material
 Applications of Expansion

• Railway lines that are not fully welded need to have a gap left
between the rails. Failure to leave a gap would mean the rails
buckling as they expand in hot weather.

• Overhead electrical cables hang low in the summer. Without

this allowance, as they contract in the winter, they could break.

• Bridges are usually designed with one end free to slide as the
metal in the bridge expands due to the heat.
 Coefficient of Linear Expansion

• The amount a length of material expands when its temperature

is raised by 10 is called the coefficient of linear expansion.

• Coefficient of linear expansion is represented by the Greek

alpha (a)

• Units are usually written as m/K-1

• A change in temperature of 25K (Kelvin) in the same as a raise

of 250C (Celsius) as the same temperature interval is used for
both systems.
 Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Example:

Brass has a coefficient of linear expansion value of 18 x 10-6 K-1

This means a brass bar 1 metre long will expand by 0.000018m if

its temperature is raised by 1K (or 10C)

If a 5m length of brass has its temperature increased by 30K it will

expand by

5 x 0.000018 x 30 = 0.0027m or 2.7mm

 Coefficient of Linear Expansion

• Typical a values

Material a values
Aluminium 23 x 10-6 K-1
Steel 15-16 x 10-6 K-1
Brass 18 x 10-6 K-1
Copper 17 x 10-6 K-1
Nylon 100 x 10-6 K-1
Tungsten 4.5 x 10-6 K-1
Zinc 31 x 10-6 K-1
 Formulas

Increase in length:

Original length = l1
Original temperature = t1
Coefficient of expansion = a
Temperature increased = t2
New length = l2

New length = original length + expansion

l2 = l1 [1 + a(t2 - t1)]
 Examples
Example 1
•Steel steam pipe is 30m long at an ambient temperature of 220
•During operation the temperature of the pipe raises to 3000 C
•Assume a value of 16 x 10-6 K-1
•Calculate the pipe length at its operating temperature.

l2 = l1 [1 + a(t2 - t1)]
= 30 [1 + (16 x 10-6 )(300 - 22)]
= 30 [1 + (0.000016)(278)]
= 30 [1 + (0.004448)]
= 30 (1.004448)
= 30.133m an increase in length of 133mm
 Conclusion
In this part, you learned

•Degrees of Accuracy
•Sizes
•Area calculations
•Calculate the hypotenuse
•Straight Line Graphs
•General Mechanical Calculations
 on s ?
u es ti
any q
ha ve
Do you
 Q&A
1. Force ratio / movement ratio is used to determines a machine's
………………………………………………………………………………………

2. 2.53 correct to three decimal place is equal to

………………………………………………………………………………………

3. 2,518 correct to three decimal places is equal to

………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Which one of the following values is equal to 6-3?

………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Which one of the following is the correct factorization of the

expression )3x + xy – xz(?
………………………………………………………………………………………
 Q&A
6. Solve the equation 4y 8 = 3y 4
………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Which of the following gives the correct value for A in the formula
A = h (a + b), where h= 8, a = 6 and b = 10
………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Referring to triangle ABC shown in the diagram, sin A is given by

………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Referring to triangle ABC, when sin A = 3/5 the length of AB is ………..

………………………………………………………………………………………
C

B
 Q&A
10. Equal volumes of two dissimilar metals A and B have relative
densities of 8.0 and 3.2 respectively.
When the mass of A is 7455 kg the mass of B is ……………..
…………………………………………………………………………………

11. What is the density of a material of volume of 26 m3 and mass of

700kg?
…………………………………………………………………………………

12. The following diagram is a simply supported beam loaded as

shown. The reactions Ra and Rb at the supports are …………………….
………………………………………………………
Ra Rb
 Q&A
13. Equal volumes of oil and water have masses of 720 kg and 800 kg
respectively. The relative density of oil is …………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………

14. A mass of 40 kg rest on a horizontal plane and the least horizontal

force required moving it is 90 N. What is the coefficient of friction? Take
acceleration due to gravity as 9.81 m/s2 …………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………

15. What is the coefficient of linear expansion for a steel pipe that
increases in length from 6000 mm to 6027 mm when the temperature
changes in the pipe from 12°C to 312°C?
………………………………………………………………………………………
 Q&A
16. A mass of 90 kg rests on a horizontal plane and the least horizontal
force required moving it is 400 N. What is the coefficient of friction? Take
acceleration due to gravity as 9.81 m/s -2
………………………………………………………………………………………

17. A force of 10 kN is required to raise a load vertically to a height of

8m. What is the work done in raising the load?
………………………………………………………………………………………

18. A force of 20 kN is required to raise a load vertically to a height of 800

mm. What is the work done in raising the load?
………………………………………………………………………………………
 Q&A
19. Referring to the diagram shown, what is the torque on the nut when
F=400 N and L=170 mm?
………………………………………………………………………………………

20. What is the amount of heat required to raise 12 kg of steel from 30 °K to

730°K? Take the specific heat capacity of steel as 480 J/kg°K.
………………………………………………………………………………………

21. What is the amount of heat required to raise 5 kg of water from 20°K to
100°K? Take the specific heat capacity of water as 4200 J/kg°K.
………………………………………………………………………………………

22. Which one of the following represents the law of straight line graphs?
………………………………………………………………………………………
 Q&A
23. The straight line graph shown uses the formula y= mx + c.
What is the value of c?
………………………………………………………………………………………

25. Given ohms law V=IR, what is the current (1) in

a circuit when the voltage (V) = 12 and the Resistance (R) = 500?
………………………………………………………………………………………

26. What is the power being used by an electrical motor when the current = 63
A and the voltage = 415 V?
………………………………………………………………………………………

27. A 14 mm diameter drill is cutting 15 meters/min. calculate using the

formula correct of the drill in rev/min, take Ԓ as 22/7. 
………………………………………………………………………………………
Unit 302: Engineering principles

Outcome #4
Understand quality control in
engineering
 Quality Definition
• Definitions:
– Quality is fit for purpose
– Quality product is suitable for its intended purpose
– Quality is meeting customer expectations
– Quality is exceeding customer expectations
– Quality is superior to competitors.
– Quality product is suitable for its intended purpose
 Quality Definition

• Quality is determined by the customers perception of the

product.
• It is a manufacturers challenge to ensure a product
meets or exceeds a customers expectation.
• A customers perception influences their willingness to
pay, re-purchase and recommend a product.
• An expensive product is not an indication of quality
• Cheap products can be considered “quality” if a
customer decides it is.
 Inspection and Quality Control
• Quality control refers to systems implemented to ensure a product
meets the required standards.
- Quality control ensures product is to specification.
• Inspection is one of the systems used to check a product is within
acceptable standards
- Inspection is carrying spot checks.
 Quality Control Systems
• An organisation with robust quality systems will have
documented procedures for every stage of production.
• Quality records should provide product traceability
information.
• Quality manuals outlines a company’s procedure for
document approval, use and authorization.
• These stages include:
– Purchasing
– Goods inwards
– Production
– Testing
– Dispatch
– Warranty, servicing & traceability
 Purchasing
• Goods are normally purchased from approved suppliers.
• Quality control (QC) includes the activities from the
suppliers, through production and to the customers.
• Approved suppliers will themselves have quality systems
in place to assure the goods supplied.
• Where appropriate, supporting documentation will be
supplied.
- An incoming inspection should be done and approval
document must completed before a supplier’s good can
be accepted.
- The main purpose of the inspection records is to show
conformance to specification.
 Goods Inward
• As deliveries of materials and components are received systems and records
need to be maintained.

• An inspection approval document must be present before finished goods are

accepted in stock.

• Any variation must be recorded

- Major variations to product ordered such as wrong size, colour or
material must be quarantined.
- Minor variations such as not enough being delivered could be allowed
into production but records made to track second delivery.

• Not all checks can be made as products are unloaded and Items should
be segregated and not allowed into production until all checks have been.
 Goods Inward

• Minor variations such as not enough being delivered could be allowed

into production but records made to track second delivery.

• Not all checks can be made as products are unloaded and Items should
be segregated and not allowed into production until all checks have been.
 Production
• ‘In process’ inspection in manufacturing guarantee to monitor all
production parameters.
• ‘Process inspection’ is important to enable correct process to be
used for production.
• In case of failure in quality product inspection:
- After failing an intermediate inspection check, a product is
transferred to an area for reworking.
- When components contain a number of significant variations
from the required standard they are normally scrapped or re-
cycled where possible.
- Components identified for scrap need to be documented so
that the quality control procedure are followed.
• A company’s documented records provide evidence that the work is
carried out in accordance with documented procedures.
Note: It is the line manager will decide if a component should be scrapped.
 Production
• During production inspection a quality records must be provided for
Product traceability information.
• The main purpose of test inspection reports being recorded and
collated is that the result can be analysed.
• It is necessary to inform the relevant persons immediately of any
variation from a specified standard to find an effective solution .
• The person responsible should be informed when there is variation
from the stated standard to insure the variation can be recorded and
fixed appropriately.
• A corrective action plan documents will indicates that the rework
must be carried out.
• Inspection report quality documents records the level of defects in a
product.
 Sampling

• A percentage of products are inspected.

• This could be per number of items produced or time based.
• For example a company may inspect 10% of all items produced.
• This percentage could be increased is defect levels are exceeded.
• A company producing bolts could inspect the first 10 bolts produced
at the beginning of a shift; 10 mid-shift and 10 at end of shift.
• If the 10 inspected are within tolerance it could be assumed that
those produced since the last inspection are correct.
• If 10 are defective, re-inspection up to the last acceptable stage may
need to take place.
 Inspection Equipment

• All tools or machines used to complete inspection must

be checked periodically to ensure their accuracy.
• All tools and machines must be identifiable by code or
serial number.
• Records must be maintained of all tools and machines
used.
 Calibration and Validation
Calibration:
•Calibration is the comparison between a known and unknown
standard.
•Calibration of measuring instruments and equipment must be
undertaken to guarantee that all component parts are within
tolerance and to maintain the quality of components.
•Records must be kept of this procedure including:
– date of last inspection
– date of next inspection
– Identification of tool
– location
 Calibration & Validation

Validation:
•Validation confirms that a machine or piece of equipment
is installed correctly, that it is operating effectively, and that
it is performing without error.
•Documented records must be maintained
 Variation to Standards

• Inspectors have decisions to make should a variation to standard be

detected.
• Depending on the variation detected an inspector must decide:
– Should production be halted to detect cause of variation.
– Re-work, adjust or scrap the component.
• Depending on the procedures, inspectors may not have the authority
to make these decisions and may need to be referred to others.
 ISO 9000
• Issued by the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO)
• ISO 9000 is a quality management system that can be
applied generically.
• ISO 9000 has a number parts
• It is designed to help ensure a product or service meets
the needs of the customer
 ISO 9000
ISO 9001 covers the following:
•Quality management system
- documented information, planning and determining
process interactions.
•Measurement analysis and improvement
- Internal audits and corrective and preventive actions.
•Resource management
- Human resources and an organization’s work environment.
•Product realization
- Steps from design to delivery
Note: Does not includes the product sales and marketing of the
management.
 ISO Certification

• In order to comply with the quality documentation

requirement of ISO 9001, a company must have a Quality
manual

• Organisations need to be independently certified to the ISO

standards.

• ISO 9001 is one of the most widely used management tools

available
 Conclusion
In this part, you learned

•Quality Definition
•Inspection and Quality Control
•Purchasing
•Production
•Calibration & Validation
•Variation to Standards
•ISO 9000
 on s ?
u es ti
any q
ha ve
Do you
 Q&A
1. A quality product will ……………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

2. Inspection is ……………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

3. Before a supplier’s good can be accepted.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

4. Calibration Of test and measuring equipment is necessary in order to ……..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

5. A BSEN standard which guarantees fitness for purpose is written so that it

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

6. Who will decide if a component should be scrapped?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….
 Q&A
7. A company's documented records provide evidence that work is carried out …
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

8. After failing an intermediate inspection check, a product is transferred to ……

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

9- Quality records provide ……..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
10- Quality control ensures a product is …………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
11. Which one of the following is the main purpose of inspection records?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
12. Which of the following must be present before finished goods are accepted into
stock?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
 Q&A
13. When a process complies with the relevant BS EN or ISO standard it ensures that ____.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
14. When components contain a number of significant variations from the required
standard they are normally _______________
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
15. Why do components identified for scrap need to be documented?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
Why is it necessary to inform the relevant persons of variation from a specified standard?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

17. What do quality records provide?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

18. In order to comply with the quality documentation requirements of ISO 9001, a
company must have a ____________
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
 Q&A
19. What is the main purpose of test inspection reports being recorded and collated?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

20. Which one of the following manuals outlines a company’s procedure for document
approval, use and authorization?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

21. Which one of the following decreases when there is a reduction in the number of
defective products from 1 unit per 500 to 1 unit per 1000?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
22. Why must materials comply with relevant BS EN standard?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

23. “In process inspection” is important as it _________.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

24. Why is ‘in process’ inspection essential in manufacturing?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
 Q&A
25. Why is ‘in process’ inspection important?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

26. Which one of the following best describes a quality product?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
27. Which one of the following documents indicates that rework must be carried out?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
28. Which one of the following is not covered by ISO 9001?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

29. A one-off stainless steel turbine rotor blade has been machined 0.01 mm oversize
from tolerance. What is the appropriate course of action?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

30. What will informing the person responsible when there is variation from the stated
standard ensure?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
 Q&A
31. Which one of the following quality documents records the level of defects in a
product?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
32.When checking a steel shaft it is found to be over length. Which one of the following
must be carried out by the lathe operator?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
33. Why must calibration of measuring instruments be undertaken?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
34. A BS EN standard should be used
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
35.A flat mild steel plate 200 x 200 x 10 mm which is to be used as a spacer has been
guillotine cut 10 mm undersize at 190 x 190 mm. What must be done?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
36. Rolled steel sections such as flat strip, channel and angle often have dimensional
variations. Why is it important to check the fabrication?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..
 Q&A
37. When the approval date on an item of lifting equipment expires, what is the
appropriate course of action
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..

38. To ensure the safe use of battery operated hand tool, the battery must be
of the correct voltage
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..