The Receptive Macro Skills-

READING
Shaira Mae, Noemi, Sheila Mae
 Nature of Reading
Widdowson (1979) defines reading as “ the
process of getting linguistic information via print”.
“the process of receiving and interpreting
information encoded in language form through the
medium of print”(Urquhart & Weir, 1998).
 Purposes of Reading
Improving Comprehension. Reading comprehension requires motivation, mental
frameworks for holding ideas, concentration and good study techniques. Here are
some suggestions:
1. Develop a broad background.
2. Know the structure of paragraphs.
3. Identify the type of reasoning.
4. Anticipate and predict.
5. Look for the method of organization.
6.Create motivation and interest.
7. Pay attention to supporting cues.
8. Highlight, summarize and review.
9. Build a good vocabulary.
10. Use a systematic reading technique like SQR3.
11. Monitor effectiveness
 • Reading Comprehension and Sub-Skills in Reading

Some people think of the act of reading as a

straightforward task that's easy to master. In reality,
reading is a complex process that draws on many
different skills. Together, these skills lead to the ultimate
goal of reading: reading comprehension, of understanding
what's been read.
 1. Decoding

Decoding is a vital step in the reading process. Kids use this skill to sound out
words they've heard before but haven't seen written out. The ability to do that is
the foundation for other reading skills. Decoding relies on an early language
skill called phonemic awareness.

What can help:

Most kids pick up the broad skill of phonological awareness naturally, by

being exposed to books, songs, and rhymes.

You can also build phonological awareness.

 2. Fluency

To read fluently, kids need to instantly recognize words, including words

they can't sound out.

What can help:

Word recognition can be a big obstacle for struggling readers. Average

readers need to see a word four to 14 times before it becomes a " sight word
" they automatically recognize. Kids with dyslexia, for instance, may need to
see it up to 40 times.

The main way to help build fluency is through practice reading books. It's
important to pick out books that are at the right level of difficulty for kids.
 3. Vocabulary

To understand what you're reading, you need to understand most of the

words in the text. Having a strong vocabulary is a key component of
reading comprehension. Students can learn vocabulary through instruction.
But they typically learn the meaning of words through everyday experience
and also by reading.
What can help:
The more words kids are exposed to, the richer their vocabulary
becomes. You can help build your child’s vocabulary by having frequent
conversations on a variety of topics. Try to include new words and ideas.
Telling jokes and playing word games is a fun way to build this skill.
 4. Sentence construction and cohesion

Understanding how sentences are built might seem like a writing skill. So
might connecting ideas within and between sentences, which is called
cohesion. But these skills are important for reading comprehension as well.
Knowing how ideas link up at the sentence level helps kids get meaning from
passages and entire texts. It also leads to something called coherence, or the
ability to connect ideas to other ideas in an overall piece of writing.

What can help:

Explicit instruction can teach kids the basics of sentence construction. For
example, teachers can work with students on connecting two or more
thoughts, through both writing and reading.
5. Reasoning and background knowledge

Most readers relate what they've read to what they know. So it's important for
kids to have background or prior knowledge about the world when they read.
They also need to be able to "read between the lines" and pull out meaning
even when it's not literally spelled out.

What can help:

Your child can build knowledge through reading, conversations, movies and
TV shows, and art. Life experience and hands-on activities also build
knowledge. Expose your child to as much as possible, and talk about what
you've learned from experiences you've had together and separately. Help
your child make connections between new knowledge and existing
knowledge.
 6. Working memory and attention

These two skills are both part of a group of abilities known as executive function. They're
different but closely related. When kids read, attention allows them to take in information
from the text. Working memory allows them to hold on to that information and use it to gain
meaning and build knowledge from what they're reading.
The ability to self-monitor while reading is also tied to that. Kids need to be able to recognize
when they don't understand something. Then they need to stop, go back and re-read to clear
up any confusion they may have.
What can help:
There are many ways you can help improve your child's working memory. Skill builders don't
have to feel like work, either. There are a number of games and everyday activities that can
build working memory without kids even knowing it. To help increase your child's attention,
look for reading material that's interesting or motivating. For example, some kids may like
graphic novels.
 Some sub-skills in Reading

 Identifying a referent word in a text

 Completing a sentence or paragraph with missing words
or phrases
 Matching headings to a paragraph
 Choosing an appropriate title for a text inserting a
sentence into a gap in a text
 Translating a sentence into a native language
 Recognizing or using grammar or grammar points in a
context.
 Reading Program and the Good Reader
Characteristics of Good Readers (Block and •Process text during and after
Pressley (2001); Harvey and Goudvis (2000)
•Interact with text reading
•Have goals for reading •Find comprehension of text to be
•Evaluate text for important ideas productive
•Note structure of text before •Create visual images based on
reading text they have read
•Make predictions •Draw inferences
•Construct, revise, and question as •Synthesize information
they read •Repair understanding
•Monitor their understanding as •Enjoy and appreciate literature
they read
•Read different kinds of text
differently
 APPROACHES IN TEACHING READING

Buttom-up Model
• A bottom-up reading model is a reading model that
emphasizes the written or printed text, it says that reading is
driven by a process that results in meaning (or, in other
words, reading is driven by text) and that reading proceeds
from part to whole. To elaborate, Gough (1972) proposes a
phonics-based or bottom-up model of the reading process
which portrays processing in reading as proceeding in serial
fashion, from letter to sound, to words, to meaning, in the
progression suggested in the accompanying figure.
2. Top-Down Model
• A top-down reading model is a reading approach that
emphasizes what the reader brings to the text, it contends that
reading is driven by meaning and proceeds from whole to part.
It is also known as concept-driven model.  Thus, the higher-
level processes embodied in past experiences and the reader’s
knowledge of the language pattern interact with and direct the
flow of information, just as listeners may anticipate what the
upcoming words of speakers might be. This view identifies
reading as a kind of “psycholinguistic guessing game”
(Goodman, 1967)
3. Interactive Model
Since neither the bottom-up nor top-down model
of the reading process totally accounts for what
occurs during the reading process, Rumelhart
(1977) proposes an interactive model in which
each letter features or data-driven sensory
information and non-sensory information come
together at one place. Using a computer analogy,
Rumelhart labels this places a “message board”. 
 Reading Skills Ladder
by Grace Goodell

BASIC SIGHT WORDS

The Dolch words are the 220 most frequently found words in books that
children read. Many of these words cannot be sounded out because they do
not follow decoding rules, so they must be learned as sight words.
These words are usually learned in first and second grade; students who learn
these words have a good base for beginning reading. One way estimating a
primary student’s reading level is by having the student identify the 220
Dolch Basic Sight Words. The number of words recognized is the basis for
assigning his/her equivalent reading level.
EHRI’S FOUR PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT IN SIGHT WORDS

I. Pre-Alphabetical Phase 
Beginners connect visual attributes of the word & its letters to pronunciations
& meaning of the word. For most students, this first phase occurs through
paired associates learning. 

II. Partial Alphabetical Phase

Children begin to learn that certain letters are associated with letter sounds.
Children begin to use phonological awareness skills to associate certain letters
in the word to pronounce the word. 
III. Full Alphabetical Phase
Children become more proficient with letters in words & their associated
phonemes. As children encounter familiar & new words, they are able to
apply their phonological awareness skills to segment the word into letter
sounds & blend these sounds back together to pronounce the word. They can
correctly discern between similarly spelled words.
IV. Consolidated Alphabetical Phase
Children are able to pronounce words by recalling word parts or letter
patterns. They use their knowledge of word parts when they encounter
multisyllabic words in their reading. Spelling becomes part of the reading
process. Research has confirmed that spelling instruction improves students’
abilities to read & decode words.
2. USING PHONETIC ANALYSIS
Phonetic-Study of speech sounds
Relating to the sound of a word or to the sounds that are used in languages
Phonetic Analysis also called phonics, is the study of sound-symbol or
phoneme grapheme relationships.
3. USING STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 
The process of using familiar word parts (base words, prefixes, and suffixes)
to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words. Breaking down unknown
words into prefixes & suffixes. Then into syllables.
“By fourth grade, most of my students are already skilled at letter-sound
associations,” she says. “But they’re now dealing with harder words, and even
when they’ve pronounced a word correctly, they might not know what it
means. So we focus on context clues and whatever meaning clues the word
itself might contain.”
 4. USING CONTEXTUAL CLUES
Hints that the author gives to help define a difficult or
unusual word. The clue may appear within the same
sentence as the word to which it refers, or it may be in a
preceding or subsequent sentence.
Types of Context Clues
• Synonym
•Antonyms
•Explanation
•Examples
 5. VOCABULARY BUILDING

According to language expert W.B. Elley, “a rich vocabulary is a valuable asset and an
important attribute of success in any walk of life.” 

7 STEPS IN BUILDING VOCABULARY

Step 1: Read, read, read
Step 2: Repeat words several times
Step 3: Look at words with the mind of a child
Step 4: Have fun by playing word games
Step 5: Make it personal
Step 6: Use your imagination to create images of the word
Step 7: Practice using  elaboration 
6. FINDING A MAIN IDEA

The main idea sentence of a paragraph tells what the

paragraph is about. It is the “key concept” being
expressed. Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger
conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an article, a
paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated
reading task Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs,
sentences, or passages all have topics and main ideas.
THREE TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as the main ideas of
the chapter or section; the extent or limits of the coverage; how the topic is
developed: and the writer’s attitude toward the topic.

Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole function is to tie together
what you have read so far and what is to come – to set the stage for
succeeding ideas of the chapter or section.

Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main ideas of the
chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from these
ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has
presented.
7. FINDING THE SUPPORTING DETAILS 
Details, major and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why,
how much, or how many.
8. Interfering meanings, drawing conclusions
9. Classifying and organizing facts
10. Using the part of a book
a.Title page-
b.Table of contents
c.Glossary of a book
d.Index of a book
11. Using the dictionary
12. Using the encyclopedias and other reference books
13. Borrowing library books for research and enjoyment
 14. Starting your private library collection
15. Exposure to reading from mass media
16. Reading from the Internet
Stages of Reading Development
STAGE 1: THE EMERGENT PRE-READER (TYPICALLY BETWEEN 6 MONTHS TO 6
YEARS OLD)
During the initial phase of the reading development process children sample and
learn from a full range of multiple sounds, words, concepts, images, stories, exposure to
print. Literacy materials, and just plain talk during the first five years of life.
STAGE 2: THE NOVICE READER (TYPICALLY BETWEEN & TO 7 YEARS
OLD)
During the second phase of the reading development process children are
learning the relationships between letters and sounds and amongst printed and spoken
words. The child begins to read stories with high-frequency words and phonically
regular words and uses emerging skills and insights to "sound out" new one-syllable
words.
STAGE 3: THE DECODING READER (TYPICALLY BETWEEN 7-9 YEARS OLD)
During the third phase of the reading development, process children are beginning to read
familiar stories and text with increasing fluency. This is accomplished by consolidating the
foundational decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning in the reading of stories and
selections that the child is already familiar with.

STAGE 4: THE FLUENT, COMPREHENDING READER (TYPICALLY BETWEEN 9-15

YEARS OLD)
During the fourth phase of the reading development process, reading is used to acquire new
ideas to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to acquire new attitudes. and to explore
issues from multiple perspectives. Reading includes the study of textbooks, reference works, trade
books, newspapers, and magazines that contain new ideas and values, new vocabulary and syntax.

STAGE 5: THE EXPERT READER (TYPICALLY FROM 16 YEARS AND OLDER)

During the fifth phase of the reading development process, the learner is reading from a wide
range of advanced materials, both expository and narrative, with multiple viewpoints. Learners are
reading broadly across the disciplines, including the physical, biological and social sciences as well
as the humanities, politics and current affairs.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD READERS
(BLOCK & PRESSLEY (2001); HARVEY AND
GOUDVIS (2000))
 Interact with text
 Have goals for reading
 Evaluate text for important ideas
 Note structure of text before reading
 Make predictions
 Construct, revise, and question as they read
 Monitor their understanding as they read
 Read different kinds of text differently
 Process text during and after reading
 Find comprehension of text to be productive
 Create visual images based on text they have read
 Draw inferences
 Synthesize information
 Repair understanding
 Enjoy and appreciate literature
 Performance and Observation- Based Assessment in Teaching Reading

Assessment is an essential element of education used to

inform instruction (Wren, 2004). Individual needs can
be determined by initial and ongoing reading
assessments.

These assessments provide teachers with the

information needed to develop appropriate lessons and
improve instruction for all students, including students
with disabilities (Rhodes & Shanklin, 1993). 
 The purpose & benefits
assessment
 To identify skills that need review
 To monitor student progress
 To guide teacher instruction
 To demonstrate effectiveness of instruction
 To provide teachers with information on how
instruction can be improved
 Assessment examples for specific areas of reading

 There are various ways to gather assessment data (Rhodes

& Shanklin, 1993). Teachers can test students, analyze
student work samples, observe students performing
literacy tasks, or interview students on their reading skills.
Teachers can gain the most information by administering
all of these methods to collect data. The following
information describes various types of assessments for
different areas of early reading. Each assessment
identified is described in the resources section of this
brief.
 Letter knowledge: the ability to associate sounds Phonemic awareness: the ability to hear and
with letters manipulate sounds in words
One example of an assessment for letter
knowledge is to present a student with a list of These assessments examine a student's knowledge of
letters and ask the student to name each letter. how sounds make words. A student can be asked to
Another example is to have a student separate break spoken words into parts, or to blend spoken parts
the letters from a pile of letters, numbers, and of a word into one word. Additionally, a student can
count the number of phonemes in a word to
symbols. Students can also be asked to separate
demonstrate understanding, or a student can delete or
and categorize letters by uppercase and add a phoneme to make a new word (Torgesen, 1998;
lowercase (Torgesen, 1998; Wren, 2004). Wren, 2004).
The following list is a sample of assessment The following list is a sample of assessment measures
measures to test letter knowledge skills: to test phonemic awareness skills:
• Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy • Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Skills (DIBELS) (CTOPP)
• DIBELS
• Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment
• ERDA
(ERDA) • Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS)
• Phonological Awareness Test (PAT)
• Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI)
 Considerations when selecting an assessment

Some measures for collecting data are more appropriate for a specific age level, skill level, or culture, and
teachers often find it beneficial to use multiple assessments when gathering information on student
performance (Wren, 2004).

Different measures provide distinct information. Therefore, teachers need to implement assessments that will
provide information about the skills their students have on the content and strategies they are teaching.
Students with disabilities who are receiving special education services have an Individualized Education
Program (IEP).

The IEP will contain documentation on measures that have been performed and the information they provided.
Reviewing this information will help teachers determine what assessments are needed to supplement the
measures that have been administered. Most important, assessment must be instructionally relevant and
focused on essential skills. Therefore, assessments should always be culturally and linguistically appropriate
(Skiba, Simmons, Ritter, Kohler, & Wu, 2003).
 Reading Assessment Techniques
1. Reading Comprehension -Reading comprehension assessments are the most
common type of published reading test that is available. The most common
reading comprehension assessment involves asking a child to read a passage
of text that is leveled appropriately for the child, and then asking some
explicit, detailed questions about the content of the text (often these are
called IRIS).
-Reading comprehension should not be confused with reading accuracy, another very
common form of reading assessment. In a reading accuracy assessment, a child is asked to
read a passage of text clearly, without making any mistakes. The mistakes that the child
does make are analyzed to find clues about the child's decoding strategies
2. Language Comprehension- Because comprehension is what
is being measured, language comprehension can be assessed in
basically the same way reading comprehension is assessed. With
language comprehension assessment, however, the child should
not be expected to read any text.
- It is also worth noting that a child's listening comprehension
"level" is usually considerably higher than her reading
comprehension "level." A child that is not able to read and
understand a passage of text usually has no difficulty
understanding the text it somebody else reads it to her.
3. Decoding- As mentioned earlier, oral reading
accuracy is one form of decoding assessment, but it is not
a very "clean assessment. Teachers need to be aware that
in their early attempts to acquire reading skills, children
apply many different strategies, some of which are hard to
detect. Typically, decoding skill is measured through the
child's ability to read words out of context. Isolated words
are presented to the child one at a time, and the child is
asked to say the word aloud
4. Background Knowledge- There are
many assessments on the market that
measure a child's general knowledge of
facts about the world. Usually, some
estimation is made of what one could
reasonably expect children in the first
grade to know.
5. Linguistic Knowledge- is the synthesis of three more basic
cognitive elements phonology, semantics, and syntax. Linguistic
knowledge is more than the sum of its parts, but it does not lend
itself to explicit assessment. A child may have a grasp on the
more basic cognitive elements, but still have trouble blending
these elements together into a stable linguistic structure. If a
child appears to have a grasp of the more basic cognitive
elements, but is still having difficulty expressing themselves or
understanding others, it is likely that the child has not yet
managed to synthesize those elements.
6. Phonology- The most common assessment for phonology involves
discriminating between two words that sound similar. In this assessment, the
child is asked to listen to the teacher say pairs of words and decide if they are
the same word repeated twice (which sometimes. they should be), or if they
are different words.

7. Semantics- is a general term that just refers to "meaning."

Vocabulary specifically refers to the meaning of isolated words,
and morphology specifically refers to the meaning of word
parts, but semantics can generally be applied to the meaning of
word parts, whole words, sentences and discourse.
8. Syntax- It is difficult to assess a child's syntactic
knowledge without using printed text, but as was the
case with semantics, if the child must process text to
take the test, then the test becomes more of a
decoding skills test than a test of syntax. It is possible
to make some estimations about the child's 's
productive sentences that the child forms when he
syntactic knowledge by listening to the he or she is
talking.
 Feedbacking in Assessing Reading

Feedback should inform students if the response is

correct or incorrect. To maximize the impact of
feedback, teachers must focus on ensuring that
students have clear learning outcomes, understand the
criteria for success, and that students understand the
feedback and know what to do as a result of the
feedback

Provide feedback while teaching

Provide many opportunities for feedback

 5 Research-Based Tips for Providing Students with
Meaningful Feedback by Marianne Stenger (2014)

1. Be Specific as Possible
2. The sooner the better
3. Address the learner’s advancement
toward a goal
4. Present feedback carefully
5. Involve learners in the process
 Thank you.
God bless!

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