DIENCEPHALON

ANAT 305
NEUROANATOMY
 Position of Diencephalon

• Position: Lies between

midbrain and cerebrum,
almost entirely
surrounded by cerebral
hemisphere

Diencephalon
 Overview
Parts of the diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• The diencephalon consists of
– The thalamus proper (or dorsal thalamus)
– The hypothalamus
– The epithalamus
– The ventral thalamus (or subthalamus).
• The third ventricle may be regarded as the cavity of the
diencephalon.
 Subdivision of Diencephalon

• Doral thalamus
• Metathalamus
• Epithalamus
• Subthalamus
• Hypothalamus
 Thalamus
• The thalamus (or
dorsal thalamus) is a
large mass of grey
matter that lies
immediately lateral
to the third
ventricle.

• It has two ends (or

poles), anterior and
posterior; and four
surfaces, superior,
inferior, medial and
lateral.
 Dorsal Thalamus
External features
• A large egg-shaped nucleus mass
• Anterior end － anterior
thalamic tubercle
• Posterior end － pulvinar
• Right and left portion of
thalamus are joined by
interthalamic adhesion
• Floor － hypothalamic sulcus
• The anterior end (or pole) lies just behind the
interventricular foramen .

• The posterior end (or pole) is called the pulvinar.

– It lies just above and lateral to the superior colliculus.

– It is separated from the geniculate bodies by the

superior brachium quadrigeminum
• The medial surface forms most of the lateral wall of the
third ventricle, and is lined by ependyma.

• The medial surfaces of the two thalami are connected by

the interthalamic adhesion (connexus).

• Inferiorly, the medial surface is separated from the

hypothalamus by the hypothalamic sulcus.

– This sulcus runs from the interventricular foramen to the

aqueduct.

• The lateral surface of the thalamus is related to the internal

capsule which separates it from the lentiform nucleus
• The reflection of the ependyma of the 3rd ventricle from the lateral
wall to the roof is marked by the taenia thalami.

• This is at the junction of the medial and superior surfaces of the thalamus

• Underlying this line is the stria medullaris thalami (a narrow bundle

of fibres).

• The inferior surface of the thalamus is related to the hypothalamus

anteriorly

• And to the ventral thalamus posteriorly .

• The ventral thalamus separates the thalamus from the tegmentum of the
midbrain.
 Internal structure the thalamus
• Its superior surface is covered by a thin layer of white
matter called the stratum zonale

• The lateral surface by the external medullary lamina.

• The grey matter of the thalamus is subdivided into three

main parts by a Y-shaped sheet of white matter which is
called the internal medullary lamina.

• It divides the thalamus into a lateral part, a medial part,

and an anterior part situated between the two limbs of
the ‘Y’.
 Anatomic Divisions
• Internal medullary lamina
– Thin sheet of myelinated fibers
– Divides the thalamus into four major divisions,
each containing specific nuclei:
• Anterior
• Medial
• Lateral
– Not included in these divisions are
• The intralaminar nuclei
• The Reticular nucleus
 Subdivision Principal Nuclei Common
abbreviation
Ant. nuclear group
Med. nuclear group
Lat. nuclear group
Dorsal tier of the Lateral dorsal LD
nuclei Lateral posterior LP
Pulvinar
Ventral tier of the Ventral anterior VA
nuclei Ventral lateral VL
Ventral posterior VP
Ventral posterolateral VPL
Ventral posteromedial VPM
 Internal medullary lamina
Med. nuclear group
Ant. nuclear group
Lateral nuclear group

Medial geniculate
body (MGN)
Ventral anterior nucleus

Ventral lateral nucleus

Ventral posterior nucleus (VP)
Lateral geniculate body (LGN)
Ventral posterolateral (VPL)
Ventral posteromedial (VPM )
 Anatomical Divisions

• Anterior Division
– Anterior nucleus
• Medial Division
– Dorsomedial Nucleus (DM)
• Lateral Division
– Dorsal Tier
• Lateral dorsal (LD)
• Lateral Posterior (LP)
• Pulvinar
– Ventral Tier
• Ventral Anterior (VA)
• Ventral Lateral (VL)
• Ventral Posterior (VP)
– Ventral posteriolateral (VPL)
– Ventral posteriomedial (VPM)
 Anatomical Divisions

…But wait…there’s more…

• Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN)

• Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
• Intralaminar Nuclei
– Centromedian (CM)
– Parafascicular (PF)
• Reticular Nucleus
 Functional Divisions
• Another way to think of this
– Relay nuclei (i.e., relay to the cortex)
– Association nuclei
– “Other” nuclei
• Interlaminar
• Reticular
 Functional Divisions
• Relay Nuclei
– Relay specific information from a particular tract

– This is not just sensory information

• Relay nuclei are part of several important modulatory
loops in the CNS

– This is not simple “passing on” of the signal

• Relay nuclei engage in some complex condensing and
processing of the incoming raw information
 Functional Divisions
• Association nuclei

– Support areas of association cortex

• Prefrontal cortex
• Parietal-occipital-temporal cortex

– Association cortex is involved in higher cognitive

function
 Functional Subdivision of
Dorsal Thalamus
Nonspecific relay nuclei － receive afferents from
rhinencephalon and reticular formation of brain stem, project
mainly to hypothalamus and corpus striatum
• Midline nucleus group
• Intralaminar nuclear group
• Thalamic reticular nucleus
Association nuclei － receive input from many
converging sources and in turn project widely to the
association areas of cerebral cortex
• Anterior nuclear group
• Medial nuclear group
• Dorsal tier of lateral nuclear group
 Functional Subdivision of
Dorsal Thalamus

Special relay nuclei

• Vent. anterior nucleus (VA)
• Vent. intermediate nucleus (VI)
Receiving dentate nucleus, globus pallidus and substantia nigra to
motor cortex
• Vent. posteromedial nucleus (VPM ) ★
Receives trigeminal lemniscus and taste fibers
• Vent. posterolateral nucleus (VPL ) ★
Receives medial lemniscus and spinal lemniscus
Projects to first somatic sensory area via central thalamic radiation
 Functional Roles
• Thalamus has four basic functional roles:
– Sensory
• All sensory information (except olfaction) is relayed to the cortex via the
thalamus
– Motor
• Motor system outputs from the basal ganglia and cerebellum are relayed
by the thalamus
– Emotion/memory
• The thalamus is part of the Papez circuit and helps control some
emotional and memory information going to limbic cortex (cingulate
gyrus)
– Vegetative
• The thalamus has some intrinsic nuclei associated with alertness and
arousal. Can be associated with disorders of consciousness
 Functional Roles
• Thalamus doesn’t just send information to the
cortex.

• It also receives cortical feedback

• The thalamus also receives connections from all
parts of the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and corpus
striatum.

• This information is projected to almost the whole of

the cerebral cortex through thalamocortical
projections.

• Thalamocortical fibres form large bundles called

thalamic radiations or as thalamic peduncles.
• Fibres from different parts of the body terminate in a
definite sequence within the nucleus.

– The fibres from the lowest parts of the body end in the most
lateral part of the nucleus.

– The medial lemniscus and spinothalamic tracts carrying

sensations from the limbs and trunk end in the ventral
posterolateral part.

– The trigeminal fibres (from the head) end in the ventral

posteromedial part, which also receives the fibres for taste.
• All the sensations reaching the nucleus are carried
primarily to the sensory area of the cerebral cortex
(SI, areas 3,2,1) by fibres passing through the
posterior limb of the internal capsule (superior
thalamic radiation).

• They also reach the second somatosensory area (SII)

located in the parietal operculum (of the insula).
 Other Nuclei

• Intralaminar nuclei
– Inputs are diverse!
• Cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brainstem reticular
formation, spinothalamic tract
– Project to
• Widespread areas of cortex
• Basal ganglia
– Produce general changes in cortical function
 Other Nuclei

• Reticular nucleus
– Sheet-like layer of neurons partially covering the thalamus

– Receives input from widespread cortical areas

– Only thalamic nucleus with no projections to the cortex

– Inhibitory projections to specific thalamic nuclei

– Regulates the activity of the thalamus in the form of

cortical feedback
 Clinical Correlation
• Thalamic Stroke - What’s the number one
symptom you might predict?
 Clinical Correlation
• Thalamic Stroke
– Loss of consciousness/coma
– Attention/arousal problems
– Widespread disruption of cortical function
– Severe cognitive deficits
 Clinical Correlation
• Anterior nucleus
– Part of the Papez Circuit in the limbic system
– Involved in memory
– Unilateral Damage: Encoding deficit
– Bilateral Damage: Severe encoding deficit
Metathalamus

Lateral geniculate body (LGN)

Medial geniculate body (MGN)

 Metathalamus
• Medial geniculate body
(MGN) ★
– Relay station of audition
– Receive fibers from inferior
colliculus
– Projects to auditory area via
acoustic radiation
• Lateral geniculate body (LGN)
★
– Relay station of vision
– Receive fibers from optic tract
– Projects to visual area via
optic radiation
 The Lateral Geniculate Body
• This is a relay station on the visual pathway.
• It receives fibres from the retinae of both
eyes).
• Efferents arising in this body constitute the
optic radiation which passes through the
retrolentiform part of the internal capsule to
reach the visual areas of the cerebral cortex.
• The grey matter of the lateral geniculate body is partially
split to form six lamellae separated by nerve fibres
ventral to dorsal side.
– Laminae one, four and six receive fibres from the retina of the
opposite side

– Laminae two, three and five receive fibres from the retina of the
same side.

– The fibres from different parts of the retinae project to specific

parts of the lateral geniculate body, the whole of the retina
being represented (visiotopic organisation).

– In turn these project to specific areas of the primary visual

cortex (area 17).
Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus Coordinates Drive-Related
Behaviors

– What are “Drive-related behaviors?”

 Hypothalamus
• Behaviors follow the principal of homeostasis
• “Drive” refers to drive to correct homeostatic
imbalance
– Hunger/satiety
– Thirst
– Sexual behavior
– Temperature regulation
– Sleep
 Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus is also the integrative link
between the external and internal
environment
External Environment

Hypothalamus

Internal Environment
 Hypothalamus
• Interaction with external environment occurs
through integration with the cortex
• Interaction with the internal environment
occurs through:
– “Sampling” of blood and CSF
– Release of hormones (via the pituitary)
• The position of the hypothalamus is not a
coincidence
 Hypothalamus
Position － lies ventral to thalamus
Boundaries
• Superiorly: hypothalamic sulcus
• Inferiorly:
– optic chiasma
– tuber cinereum
– Infundibulum
– mamillary body
• Anterior: lamina terminalis
• Posterior: continues with midbrain
tegmentum
 The Hypothalamus
• It lies below the thalamus.

• Medially it forms wall of the third ventricle below the level of

the hypothalamic sulcus.

• Laterally, it is in contact with the internal capsule, and (in the

posterior part) with the ventral thalamus (subthalamus).

• Posteriorly, the hypothalamus merges with the ventral

thalamus, and through it with the tegmentum of the midbrain.
• Anteriorly, it extends up to the lamina terminalis,
and merges with some olfactory structures in the
anterior perforated substance.

• Inferiorly, it is related to structures in the floor of the

third ventricle (the tuber cinereum, the
infundibulum, and the mamillary bodies)

– These are considered as parts of the

hypothalamus.
Subdivisions of the Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus may be subdivided, into a (from
medial to lateral side) into three zones which are as
follows.

a) Periventricular zone.

b) Intermediate zone.

c) Lateral zone.
• The periventricular and intermediate zones are often
described collectively as the medial zone.

• The the fornix lies between the medial and lateral zones.

• The hypothalamus is can also be subdivided

anteroposteriorly into four regions.
a) The preoptic region
b) The supraoptic (or chiasmatic) region
c) The tuberal (or infundibulotuberal) region.
d) The mamillary (or posterior)
 Hypothalamus

Subdivisions
• Preoptic region
• Supraoptic region
• Tuberal region
• Mamillary region
 Important Nuclei of Hypothalamus

• Supraoptic region
– Supraoptic nucleus － produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH ，
vasopressin)
– Paraventricular nucleus － produce oxytocin Tuberal
region Infundibular nucleus
– Ventromedial nucleus
– Dorsomedial nucleus
• Mamillary region
– Mamillary nucleus
– Posterior hypothalamic nucleus
 Paraventricular nucleus

Paraventriculohypophyeal tract

Supraoptic nucleus

Supraopticohypophyseal tract

infundibulum

anterior lobe of hypophsis

posterior lobe of hypophysis

 Hypothalamic nuclei
1. The preoptic nucleus extends through the
periventricular, intermediate, and lateral
zones of the preoptic part.
2. The mamillary nuclei lie within the mamillary
body.
– The remaining nuclei of the hypothalamus lie
either in the periventricular, intermediate, or
lateral zones.
Nuclei in the medial zone
• (3) The paraventricular nucleus, and (4) the suprachiasmatic
nucleus, lie in the supraoptic region.

• (5) The arcuate (or infundibular) nucleus lies in the tuberal region.

• (6) The posterior nucleus extends into both the tuberal and
mamillary regions.

• (7) The anterior nucleus occupies the supraoptic region.

• .
• (8) The dorsimedial nucleus, and (9) the
ventrimedial nucleus lie in the tuberal part,
which also contains small aggregations of cells
that constitute (10) the premamillary nuclei
 Connections of Hypothalamus

• Connects with limbic system

• Connects with brainstem and spinal cord
• Connects with dorsal thalamus
• Connects with hypophysis
 Anatomic Considerations
• Inputs
– Widespread!
• Cortex
• Limbic system
– Helps integrate autonomic responses with emotional state
• Brain Stem and Spinal cord
– Visceral somatic information
 Anatomic Considerations
• Inputs
– Hypothalamus also has intrinsic sensory neurons
• Directly responsive to physical stimuli
– Temperature
– Blood osmolality
– Glucose
 Anatomic Considerations
• Outputs
– Neural
• Reciprocate inputs
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala
• Thalamus
• Brain Stem
• Spinal Cord
– Hormonal
• Pituitary gland
 Functions of the Hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus plays an important role in the

control of many functions that are vital for the
survival of an animal.

• The hypothalamus acts in close coordination with

higher centres including the limbic system and the
refrontal cortex, and with autonomic centres in the
brainstem and spinal cord.
• Regulation of eating and drinking behaviour
• Regulation of sexual activity and reproduction
• Control of autonomic activity
• Emotional behaviour
• Control of endocrine activity
• Response to stress.
• Temperature regulation
• Biological clock (Circadian rhythm)
– Lesions of the hypothalamus disturb the sleep-waking
cycle.
 Functions of Hypothalamus
• Autonomic control
• Endocrine control
• Temperature regulation
• Regulation of food and water intake
• Emotion and behavior
• Control of circadian rhythms
 Anatomic Considerations
• Two parts of the pituitary gland
– Neurohypophysis
• Direct neural control of hormone release into blood via
neurosecretory cells
– Adenohypophysis
• Not a direct neural link
• Vascular connection with hypothalamus
 Clinical Correlation
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
– Center for circadian rhythm regulation
– Has a natural 25 hour set cycle
– Daylight cues and melatonin from the pineal gland
“train” it to a 24-hour cycle
– Important in sleep/wake cycle
 Clinical Correlation
• Mammillary Bodies
– Part of the limbic Papez Circuit
– Crucial for memory function
– Mammillary bodies are damaged by chronic
alcohol abuse
 Clinical Correlation
• Long-term chronic alcoholics end up with
alcohol induced dementia
– Temporally graded severe memory loss
 Control of hypophysis cerebri by the
hypothalamus.
• Control of Neurohypophysis
• It is now known that vasopressin (antidiuretic
hormone) and oxytocin, associated with the
neurohypophysis, are really neurosecretory
products synthesised in the paraventricular
and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus.
• The neurons producing vasopressin and
oxytocin are distinct.

– Although both types of neurons are found in each

nucleus, the supraoptic nucleus is believed to
mainly produce vasopressin, and the
paraventricular nucleus is believed to mainly
produce oxytocin.
 The Epithalamus

• The epithalamus lies in relation to the

posterior part of the roof of the third
ventricle, and in the adjoining part of its
lateral wall.
1. Pineal body.
2. Paraventricular nuclei, anterior and posterior.
3. Habenular nuclei, medial and lateral.
4. Stria medullaris thalami.
5. Posterior commissure.
 Epithalamus
Consist of:
• Thalamic medullary stria
• Habenular trigone
• Habenular commissure
• Pineal body
• posterior commissure
 The Diencephalon
• Pineal Gland
– Unpaired midline structure
– Just rostral to superior colliculi
– Looks like a pine cone (“pineal”)
– Endocrine gland related to seasonal light cycles
– Secretes melatonin
 The Pineal body

• The pineal body (or pineal gland) is a small structure

present in relation to the posterior wall of the third
ventricle of the brain.

• The pineal body produces a number of hormones

(chemically indolamines or polypeptides).

– These hormones have an important regulatory influence

on many endocrine organs including the hypophysis
cerebri, the thyroid, the parathyroids, the adrenals, and
the gonads.
• The attachment of the pineal body to the
posterior wall of the third ventricle is through
a stalk that has two laminae, superior and
inferior.

• The superior lamina is traversed by fibres of

the habenular commissure; and the inferior
lamina by fibres of the posterior commissure.
• The pineal body is innervated by postganglionic
sympathetic neurons located in the superior
cervical sympathetic ganglia.

• Some activities of the pineal body (e.g., the

secretion of the hormone melatonin) show a
marked circadian rythm, which appears to be
strongly influenced by exposure of the animal to
light.

• Activity of the pineal body is greater in darkness.

• A tumour of the pineal body can produce
precocious puberty. Melatonin is believed to
regulate the onset of puberty
 Stria Medullaris Thalami & Habenular
commissure
• The stria medullaris thalami is a bundle of
fibres lying deep to the taenia thalami (along
the junction of the medial and superior
surfaces of the thalamus).

• It begins near the anterior pole of the

thalamus and runs backwards to reach the
habenular region.
• The habenular commissure are fibres of the
stria medullaris thalami that cross in the
superior (or anterior) lamina of the pineal
stalk to reach the habenular nuclei of the
opposite side.
• Posterior Commissure lies in the inferior lamina of the
stalk of the pineal body.

– These include the interstitial and dorsal nuclei of the posterior

commissure, the nucleus of Darkschewitsch, and the interstitial
nucleus of Cajal.

– Some fibres arising from these nuclei pass through the posterior
commissure. Other fibres continue into it from the medial
longitudinal bundle.

– Some fibres arising in the thalamus, the tectum, and the

pretectal nuclei also pass through the posterior commissure.
• The main masses of grey matter that are
included in the ventral thalamus are
• The reticular nucleus
• The zona incerta and
• The perigeniculate nuclei.
The Reticular Nucleus
• The reticular nucleus is made up of a thin layer of
neurons covering the lateral aspect of the
(dorsal) thalamus, separated from the latter by
the external medullary velum.

• Laterally, the nucleus is related to the internal

capsule.

• Inferiorly, it is partially continuous with the zona

incerta.
• This is how the nucleus receives somatic, visceral and
auditory impulses.

• The main efferents of the reticular nucleus pass back

into the dorsal thalamus.

– These fibres are GABAergic.

– They may influence conduction through the dorsal

thalamus (Fig. 13.26).

– The reticular nucleus also receives fibres from the nucleus

cuneiformis (in the reticular formation of the midbrain).
• The Zona Incerta is a thin lamina of grey
matter continuous with the reticular nucleus
of the thalamus.

• It intervenes between the subthalamic

nucleus and the thalamus.

• Its functions are not known.

 THE SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS
• The subthalamic nucleus is shaped like a biconvex lens.

• It lies between the thalamus above, and the substantia nigra below.

• The upper end of the red nucleus is close to it.

• The nucleus is closely related to the zona incerta, the fascicularis

lenticularis lies between the two.

• The fibres connecting the subthalamic nucleus to the globus pallidus

form a bundle called the subthalamic
 Subthalamus
• Position: transition zone
between diencephalons and
tegmentum of midbrain
• Content: subthalamic nucleus,
parts of red nucleus and
substantia nigra
 Fibre Bundles passing through the
Subthalamic Region
• Ascending tracts (medial lemniscus, spinal lemniscus, trigeminal
lemniscus) pass through it on their way from the midbrain to the
thalamus.

– They are accompanied by dentato-thalamic and rubrothalamic fibres.

• The subthalamic region also contains two bundles of fibres that

connect the globus pallidus to the thalamus.

• These are the ansa lenticularis and the fasciculus lenticularis.

Associated with these bundles there are certain regions called the
fields of Forel
 References
• Singh I. (2008) Testbook of Human
Neuroanatomy 8th edition. Jaypee Brothers
medical Publishers Ltd

• www.opt.uab.edu/class2011/1st%20year/Neuro
Anatomy/Thalamus.ppt

• course.sdu.edu.cn/G2S/eWebEditor/uploadfile/
20130424164408022.ppt