ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (TE 262)

Taught by:

Kwame Oteng Gyasi

Address: Department of Telecommunication Engineering,
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]
Phone: (054) 447-8819
Office: Room 313, Caesar Building
Semester 12, 2022
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (TE 262)

TE 262: Electromagnetic Fields

Theory
Lecture 1
Introduction to the Course
2022.06.20 / 2022.06.24

2
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 Introductory Concepts Week 2 27/06

 The electromagnetic Model
 Orthogonal Coordinate System and Vector Calculus
 Static Electric Fields Week 3-4 4/07
 Fundamental Postulates of Electrostatics
 Material Media in Static Electric Field
 Static Magnetic Fields Week 5 18/07
 Magnetostatics
 Boundary Conditions
 Steady Electric Current Week 6 25/07
 Current Density and Ohm's Law
 Equation of Continuity and Kirchhoff's Current Law

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 Mid Semester Exams Week 7 1/08

 Time-Varying Fields & Maxwell’s Eq. Week 8-9 8/08

 Basis For Maxwell’s Equations and Boundary Conditions
 Time Harmonic Electromagnetics

 Plane Electromagnetic Waves Week 10-11 22/08

 Plane Waves in Lossless Media
 Plane Waves at Boundaries
 Revision Week 12 05/09
 End of Sem Exams Week 13 12/09

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 Recommended Text Books

 Cheng David K, Fundamentals of Engineering
Electromagnetics, Addison-Wesley, 1993

 Hayt, W. H. and Buck, J.A., Engineering

Electromagnetics, 7th Edition, New York, McGraw-Hill,
2004

 Yi Huang and Kevin Boyle, Antenna from theory to

practice, John Wiley, 2008

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Assessment
 Assignments ~10%

 Project ~ 10%

 Mid-Semester Exams (August, 1st ~August, 5th)~ 10%

 End of Semester Exams ~ 70 %

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 TEACHING & RESEARCH ASSISTANT

Owusu Lord Ohemeng

Tel: (050) 473-6423
Mail: [email protected]

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 EM Fields Theory
 It is the study of electric and magnetic phenomena
caused by electric charges at rest or in motion.
 The History of Electric Charges
 Greek Philosopher, Thales of Miletus discovered that
amber rod rubbed on silk or wool attracted straw and
small bits of paper
 Greek word for amber is electron from which was
derived Electron, electronics, electricity etc.

8
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

The Electric Charge

 Positive or negative, is the source of an electric field
 Moving charges produce a current
 A time-varying current gives rise to a magnetic field
A Field
 is a spatial distribution of a quantity, may or may not be
a function of time.
 A time-varying electric field is accompanied by a
magnetic field and vice versa

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 Time-varying electric and magnetic fields are coupled,

resulting in an ElectroMagnetic Field.
 Under certain conditions,
 time-dependent electromagnetic fields produce waves
 Such waves radiate from the source and
 A message signal can be impressed on such waves to a
distance destination.
 This is the basis of wireless communication and
Electromagnetic Fields and Waves make that possible.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Applications (1)
 The concept of fields and waves are essential in the explanation
of actions at a distance
 For example, how does an object fall toward the earth surface
if there are no elastic strings connecting a free-falling object
and the earth ??
 This can be explained by the existence of a gravitational
field
 Similarly, the possibilities of satellite communication can be
explained only by postulating the existence of electric and
magnetic fields
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Applications (2)
 A mobile phone on transmit sends a message-
carrying current at a certain frequency from the
source to the antenna ends
 From circuit-theory point of view, the end of the
antenna is connected to an open space (open circuit).
How is mobile communication possible then ??
 Electromagnetic concepts must be used to explain
this phenomenon, since circuit-theory is limited in
this regard
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 For a theory based on an idealized model, three things are

essential:
 Define some basic quantities germane to the subject of study
 Specify the rules of operation (the mathematics) of these
quantities
 Postulate some fundamental relations
Example Circuit Theory Model
 Quantities: voltages (V), currents(I), resistances (R), inductances (L),
and capacitances (C)
 Rules of Operation: algebra, ordinary differential equations, and
Laplace transformation
 Fundamental Postulates: Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL

STEP 1
Basic Quantities
 Source Quantities and
 Field Quantities
 Source of electromagnetic field: electric charges at rest or in motion
 Symbol of electric charge: q or Q
 Exists in integral multiples of the charge of an electron, -e
e = 1.60 x 10-19 (C)
 A coulomb is a very large unit for electric charge;
 it takes 1/(1.60 x 10-19 ) or 6.25 million trillion electrons to make
up 1 (C)
 Fundamental Postulate: Principle of conservation of electric charge

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 Source Quantities (Charge Densities)

q 3

 Volume Charge Density, v v0 (C / m )
 lim
v
 Dq is the amount of charge in a very small volume Dv

q
 Surface Charge Density,  s  lim (C / m 2 )
s 0 s
q
 Line Charge Density, l  lim (C / m)
l  0 l

 Charge densities vary from point to point

 hence  v ,  s and l are in general, point functions of space coordinates
dq
 Current is the rate of change of charge with respect to time: dt ( A)
I 
 Current must flow through a finite area, hence it is NOT a point function

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Current Density, J
 is a measure of the amount of current flowing through a unit area
normal to the direction of flow.

 It is a vector whose magnitude is the current per unit area (A/m2)

and whose direction is the direction of current flow.

 Is it a point function?

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Field Quantities,
 There are 4 fundamental vector field quantities in
electromagnetics:
Electric field intensity, E, is the only vector needed in
discussing electrostatics in free space
Electric flux density (Electric displacement), D, is useful in the
study of electric field in a material (medium)
Magnetic flux density, B, is the only vector used in discussing
magneto-statics (steady electric currents) in free space
Magnetic field Intensity, H, is useful in the study of magnetic
field in material media

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 In static, steady or stationary cases (when there is no time variation), the E field
quantities
E and D and magnetic field (H field) quantities B and H form two separate vector
pairs
 In time-dependent cases, E- and H-field quantities are coupled.
 Meaning, a time varying E and D will create B and H, and vice versa

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 In electromagnetics, four main SI units are used:

 The units in Table 1-1 are derived units that can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
units; meters, kilograms, seconds, and amperes.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

 In the electromagnetic model, there are three (3) universal

constants in addition to the source, field quantities, and SI units
 They relate to properties of free space (vacuum)
 These constants are: speed of an EM wave c, permittivity of
free space ɛ0 , and permeability of free space µ0

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 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

STEP 2
 Step 2 of creating the EM model is
 defining the rules of operation

 Many electromagnetic quantities are vectors so we must be able to handle them

with ease
 Either by addition, subtraction or multiplication

 Certain differential operators and theorems are required to properly handle EM

vectors:
 gradient, divergence and curl operators as well as Stokes’ and divergence
theorems

 In order to express results in a 3-Dimensional space,

 a suitable coordinate system must be chosen

 Here, the three most common orthogonal coordinate systems will be used:
 Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical coordinate systems

21
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

A vector has magnitude and direction.

A = aA A

 Where,
 A = |A| which is a scalar
 a = A / |A| is the unit vector having a magnitude of unity and
A

dimensionless .

22
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS
 Vector
addition and subtraction can be done in two ways:
 Parallelogram rule and head-to-tail

23
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Vector Multiplication
 Scalar (dot) product and
 Vector (cross) product
 Scalar (dot) product
 A.B = AB cosƟAB
 where A and B are the magnitudes of vectors A and B and
 ƟAB is the smaller angle between A and B and is less than
180°.
 Dot product is commutative
 A.B = B.A A.A = A2 or A = √(A.A)

24
 Vector (Cross) product
A x B = anABsinƟAB
 an is a unit vector normal to the
plane containing A and B

 The direction of an follows that

of the thumb of the right hand when
the fingers rotate from A to B
through angle ƟAB

 Cross product is not commutative

B xA= -AxB

 The cross product of A x B

results in another vector obtained by
the right-hand rule and whose
magnitude is equal to the area of a
25
parallelogram
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

Laws of electromagnetics are invariant with coordinate systems.

 However solutions of practical problems requires that the laws be expressed in a

coordinate system that the problem is specified in.

In a 3-Dimentional space, a point can be located as the intersection of three surfaces

These points may be either lengths or angles

When these three surfaces are mutually perpendicular to one another,

 we have an orthogonal coordinate system

Many orthogonal coordinate systems exist; most common ones are

 Cartesian (rectangle) coordinates
 Cylindrical coordinates
 Spherical coordinates 26
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Cartesian coordinates
 A point P in Cartesian
coordinates is represented by
 P (x, y, z)

 The three mutually perpendicular

unit vectors ax, ay, az are called base
vectors
ax x ay = az ax . ay = 0 ax . ax = 1
ay x az = ax ay . az = 0 ay . ay = 1
az x ax = ay ax . az = 0 a z . az = 1

2727
 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

A = axAx + ayAy + azAz Vector A in Cartesian coordinates

Vector differential length in Cartesian

dƖ= axdx + aydy + azdz coordinates

dv = dxdydz A differential volume in Cartesian coordinates

Scalar product of A and B in Cartesian

A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz coordinates

Vector product of A and B in Cartesian

coordinates

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 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Cylindrical Coordinates
 A point P in cylindrical
coordinates is given by P ( r, ф,
z)
 ar x aф = az
 aф x az = ar
 dƖ =aardr
z x ar = a ф
+ aфrdф + azdz
 Vector differential length in cylindrical
coordinates

 dv = rdrdфdz
 volume in cylindrical coordinates

 A = arAr + aфAф + azAz

 Vector A in cylindrical coordinates

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 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Transformation of the location of a point

 cylindrical to cartesian coordinates
 P(r,ф,z) to P(x,y,z): Relations among a , a , a
x y r and aF
x = r cos φ

y = r sin φ
z=z

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 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Spherical Coordinates
 A point P in spherical coordinates is given by
 P (R, Ɵ, ф)  A = aRAR + a AƟ + aфAфƟ

a xa =a
R Ɵ ф
Vector A in spherical coordinates

a xa =a
Ɵ ф R  dƖ = aRdR + a RdƟ + af RsinƟdф
Ɵ

Vector differential length in spherical coordinates

 a x a = aɵ
ф R

 dv = R2sinƟ dRdƟdф
A differential volume in spherical coordinates

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 2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

 Transformation of a location of X = R sinƟ cosф

a point Y = R sinƟ sinф
 Spherical to Cartesian Z = RcosƟ
coordinates
 P(R, Ɵ, ф) to P(x, y, z)

Interrelationship of space variables (x,y,z),

32
(r, ф, z), (R, Ɵ, ф)
2. VECTOR ANALYSIS

33
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD  In general orthogonal coordinates

 Electromagnetic quantities often depend on both with
time and position  coordinates (u1, u2, u3) and
 metric coefficients (h1, h2, h3),
 In general, fields may change as any of the variables we can define gradient as:
in the coordinate system change

 It is necessary to describe the space rate of change of

a scalar field at any given time, t

 Since the rate of change may be different in different

directions, a vector is needed to define the space rate of
change

 Gradient is defined as the vector that represents

both the magnitude and direction of the maximum
space rate of increase of a scalar Gradient of a scalar

 Gradient is denoted by the symbol (nabla

operator or del ) 34
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

A = Gradient of a scalar field A

(Cartesian)

(Cylindrical)

(Spherical)

(General)

35
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

Divergence Of A Vector Field

 In studying vector fields, it is convenient to

represent field variations by directed field lines  Numerator is an enclosed surface
called flux lines integral representing the net outward
flux of A
 The flux lines are directed lines or curves that
indicate at each point the direction of the vector  Surface Integral is a double integral
field
 Small circle on integral sign
 The nature of the flux lines can dictate how indicates that the integral is to be
strong or weak the field strength is at a certain
carried out over the entire surface S
point compared to other points
enclosing the volume
A high density of the flux lines at a certain point
 The integrand ds is a vector with
indicates stronger field strength
magnitude ds and direction an pointing
outward from the enclosed volume
Divergence of a vector field A is defined as the
net outward flux of A per unit volume as the
volume about the point tends to zero 36
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

Divergence Of A Vector Field

The figures on the right show directed flux lines

In Fig (a), the field in region A is stronger than

in region B because of higher density of equal-
length directed lines in A

In Fig (b), decreasing arrow length away from

point q indicates stronger radial field closest to q Fig. A. Divergent vector field

 A net positive divergence represents the

presence of a source and a net negative
divergence indicates the presence of a sink

In Fig (c) there is an equal amount of inward

and outward flux going through any closed
volume containing no source or sink. Therefore Fig. B. Divergence of different vector
resulting in No or Zero divergence fields 37
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

V.A = Divergence of a vector field A

 
(Cartesian)

(Cylindrical)

(Spherical)

(General)

38
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

Divergence Theorem

Divergence of a vector field has been defined as the

net outward flux per unit volume

Thus the volume integral of the divergence of the

vector field equals the total outward flux of the vector
through the surface that bounds the volume. This is Divergence definition
known as the divergence theorem

This theory applies to any volume V that is bounded

by surface S

 The direction of ds is always that of the outward

normal, perpendicular to the surface ds and directed
away from the volume Divergence theorem

 Divergence theorem is very important in vector

analysis since it converts a volume integral of vector
divergence to a closed surface integral of the vector and
vice versa

They are usually double and triple integrals but a

single integral is used for simplicity 39
 Divergence examples
Example 1
Compute 𝐹 =¿
and S is the surface of the box
0≤ 𝑥≤1,0≤ 𝑦 ≤3,0≤ 𝑧 ≤2

Solution::

Using the divergence theorem:

+

𝛻 ∙ 𝐅=3+2 𝑦 + 𝑥
𝐝𝐯=𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝟐 𝟑 𝟏

∯ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐬=∫∫∫ ( 𝟑+ 𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑠 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

∯ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐬=𝟑𝟗
𝑠
Example 2
Given ), Compute Where S is the sphere of radius 3
centered at the origin.

0 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 3 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤2 𝜋
Solution::
Using the divergence theorem, we must convert the surface integral over a
closed surface into a volume (triple) integral over volume inside the surface

2𝜋 𝜋   3

∯ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐬=∫ ∫ ∫ ( 𝑦 2+ 𝑧 2 +𝑥 2 ) 𝑅2 sin 𝜃 𝑑 𝑅 𝑑 𝜃 𝑑 𝜑
𝑠 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

2𝜋 𝜋   3

∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑅 4 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑅𝑑 𝜃 𝑑 𝜑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝝅
∯ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐬= 𝟓
𝑠
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

 Proof of Divergence Theorem  The individual contributions of the

differential volumes can be combined as

 The left side of the equation is

simplified as

 The right side of the equation is

simplified as
 A volume V can be divided in several differential
volumes ∆Vj as shown above
since net contribution is due only to that of
 For a very small differential volume ∆Vj the external surface S
bounded by a surface sj, the definition of
divergence is given by:  The divergence theorem is therefore
given as:

42
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

 Curl of a Vector Field Circulation of A around contour C

The net outward flux of a vector through a
surface bounding a volume indicates the Physical meaning of circulation
presence of a source 1. If A is a force acting on an object, its
circulation will be the work done by the
 This is known as flow source. Another force in moving the object around a
contour
kind of source is called a vortex source
2. If A represents an electric field
 A vortex source causes circulation of a intensity, E, the circulation will be an
vector field around it electromotive force around the closed
path
 The circulation of a vector field around a
closed path is defined as the scalar integral of 3. Water whirling down a sink drain is an
a vector over a closed path as shown example of a vortex sink causing
circulation of fluid velocity
mathematically

The physical meaning of circulation

depends on what kind of vector A represents
Mathematical definition of curl of a vector A
43
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

 Curl of a Vector Field

 The curl of a vector A, is a vector whose
magnitude is the maximum net circulation of
A per unit area as the area tends to zero, and
 whose direction is the normal direction of Relation between an and dƖ in defining curl
the area when the area is oriented to make the
net circulation maximum
 Curl A is a vector point function
 Normal to an area can point in two opposite
directions
 Using the right-hand rule such that the
fingers follow the direction of dƖ and thumb
points to the an direction. This is illustrated
above
 The component of curl A in any other
direction aside the normal is given by curl of
A dot the unit vector in that direction. This is
illustrated above
44
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

A B C
If the Vector field in the picture above is represented by G. Select
which picture(s) have a have the relation:

45
2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

(Cartesian)

(Cylindrical)

(Spherical)

(General)

46
2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

47
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

For a given surface S, it can be subdivided into

 Stokes’ Theorem N small differential areas as seen in the figure. By
adding the contributions of all the differential
areas, we have

 Now, since the common part of the contours

of two adjacent elements are in opposite
direction, the net contribution of all the interior
Subdivided area: for proving
elements to the total line integral is zero, and the
Stokes’ theorem
only contribution is from the external contour C
 For a small differential area ∆sj bounded bounding the entire area S, therefore
by a contour cj, the definition of curl
(shown below)

becomes

 This is achieved by taken the dot product  Combining the two equations gives
of both sides of the curl equation with an ∆sj us
or ∆sj . 48
 Stokes’ theorem examples
Example 1
Let C be the closed curve illustrated below:

Given F = (y, z, x)

Compute the circulation of the vector

around the path C

Solution::
Since the diagram shows a line integral. We can use Stokes’ theorem to compute the surface
integral
∮ 𝐅 ∙𝐝𝐥= ∫ 𝐅 ∙𝐝𝐥+¿ ∫ 𝐅 ∙𝐝𝐥+ ∫ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐥¿
𝐶 𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒂𝒓𝒄
𝑭 = 𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑧 𝑎 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑎 𝑧
∫ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐥= ∫ ( 𝑦 𝑎𝑥 +𝑧 𝑎 𝑦 +𝑥 𝑎 𝑧 )∙𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑦 =𝟎¿ ∫ 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝𝐥=𝟎
𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒕𝒐𝒑

∫ 𝐅 ∙𝐝𝐥= ∫ ( 𝑦 ¿ ¿𝑎𝑥+𝑧 𝑎 𝑦 +𝑥 𝑎 𝑧 )∙(𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑦 +𝑑 𝑧 𝑎𝑧 )= ∫ 𝑧 𝑑 𝒚 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 𝒛 ¿

𝒂𝒓𝒄 𝒂𝒓𝒄 𝒂 𝒓𝒄 𝒂 𝒓𝒄

∫ 𝐅 ∙𝐝𝐥=∫ √1− 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦= 𝝅 /𝟒 2
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 : 𝒚 𝟐 + 𝒛 𝟐 =𝟏
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

Two null identities

The curl of the gradient of any scalar  The divergence of the curl of any
field is identically zero vector field is identically zero
A converse statement can also be made
as:  A converse statement can also be
 If a vector field is curl-free made as:
(or irrotational), then it is  If a vector field is divergenceless,
conservative and can be expressed then it is solenoidal and can be
as the gradient of a scalar field expressed as the curl of another
vector field
IDENTITY
IDENTITY II
I

50
 2*. VECTOR CALCULUS

Helmholtz’s theorem Field Classifications

1. A static electric field in a charged-free region
 Helmholtz’s theorem states
that: Solenoidal and irrotational
 A vector field is determined if 2. A steady magnetic field in a current—carrying
both its divergence and curl conductor
are specified everywhere
Solenoidal but not irrotational

 Helmholtz’s theorem is a basic

3. A static electric field in a charged region
element in the development of
EM
Not solenoidal but Irrotational

 For each EM field study 4. An electric field in a charged medium with a

(electrostatics, time varying time-varying magnetic field
electromagnetic fields, etc), the
divergence and curl will have to Neither Solenoidal nor irrotational

be specified 51
 TUTORIALS
1. Given a Vector A = -ax + 2ay - 2az. Find
(a) Its magnitude |A|
(b) The expression of the unit vector aA in the
direction of A
(c) The angle that A makes with the z-axis

2. Given A = 5ax – 2ay + az, and B = -3ax + 4az. Find

(a)A·B
(b)AxB
(c)ƟAB 49
3. Given a vector B = 2ax – 6ay + 3az. Find
(a) The magnitude of B
(b) The expression of aB
(c) The angles that B makes with the x, y, and z axis

4. Assuming that a cloud of electrons confined in a

region between two spheres of radii 2cm and 5cm
has a charge density of:

Find the total charge contained in the region 50

5. Given a vector field A = r ar + z az
• Find the total outward flux over a circular cylinder
around the z-axis with a radius 2 and a height 4
centered at origin
• Find the divergence of A ( )
• Verify the divergence theorem

51
6. Prove the two null identities mathematically

IDENTITY I IDENTITY II

7. Compute 𝐹 =¿
and S is the surface of the box
0≤ 𝑥≤1,0≤ 𝑦 ≤3,0≤ 𝑧 ≤2

8. Given ), Compute Where S is the sphere of radius 3

centered at the origin.

0 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 3 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤2 𝜋

9. Let C be the closed curve illustrated below:

Given F = (y, z, x)

• Compute the circulation of the

vector around the path C
 3. Static Electric Fields
• Static electric fields are caused by stationary electric
charges

• When one walks over a carpet in a dry room, the rubbing

of shoes soles on the carpet produces charges on our body
(e.g. fingertips)

• The charges can jump across the air to a doorknob when

ones touches a metal doorknob
Augustin de Coulomb
• This potential difference generated may be a several
thousand volts which may cause a slight shock

• Electrostatics is the study of the effects of electric charges

at rest. Here the electric fields do not change with time

• Electrostatics is the simplest situation in electromagnetics

but it has a lot of importance, i.e. it explains phenomenon
such as lightening and some industrial applications such as
ink-jet printers, oscilloscopes, etc. Karl Friedrich Gauss
52
 Fundamental postulates of Electrostatics in Free
Space
• As discussed previously, the only vector quantities
considered in electrostatics is the Electric field
intensity, E

• Also among the universal constants, only the

permittivity of free space ɛ0, is considered

• Electric field intensity, E is defined as the force per

unit charge that a very small stationary test charge
experiences when it is placed in a region where an
electric field exists Fundamental postulates of
electrostatics in free space
• According to Helmholtz’s theorem, we have to specify (differential form)
the divergence and curl of E in electrostatics

• The 2 postulates are simple and concise and can be

used to derive any laws in electrostatics

• They can be written in differential form or integral Fundamental postulates of

form electrostatics in free space
(integral form) 53
 Coulomb’s Law

Electric field intensity of a point charge

at an arbitrary location

When a point charge q2 is placed in the

field of another point charge q1, a force
Point charge at Point charge NOT F12 is experienced by q2 due to the
the origin at the origin electric field intensity E12 of q1 at q2. This
Fig.1 Electric field intensity due to a point charge force is given as:

This is the Coulomb’s law which states

that: the force between two point
charges is proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely
Electric field intensity of a point charge at proportional to the square of the
the origin distance of separation

54
 Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge

Electric field intensity of a

volume distribution of charge

Electric field intensity of a surface

Electric field caused by a continuous distribution of charge
distribution of charge can be obtained by
integrating the contribution of an
element charge over the charge
distribution Electric field intensity of a line
Electric field intensity due to an infinite distribution of charge
planar charge of uniform density

Electric field intensity due to an infinite

straight line charge of uniform density 55
 Electric Potential
Electric potential V can be defined as

Electric potential is related to the work done

in carrying a charge from one point to
another. Therefore in moving a unit charge
from point P1 to point P2 in a electric field,
work must be done against the field and its
equal to:

The electric potential V of a point

at a distance R from a point charge
Therefore the work done in moving a unit q referred at infinity is given by
charge from P1 to P2 is equal to the
Electrostatic potential difference between P1
and P2
56
 Material Media in Static electric field
In previous slide, the electric field of stationary charge distribution has been discussed in Free
space. Here, we’ll look at static field behavior in a material medium
The 3 main types of materials are conductors, semi-conductors and insulators (dielectrics)

INSIDE A CONDUCTOR

Inside a conductor, both free

charge and electric field
intensity vanish under static
conditions
Boundary conditions at a
The tangential components of the conductor-Free Space interface
electric field intensity E at the
surface of the conductor is should
be zero as well. Here, the E-field on
a conductor is the normal
components 57
 Dielectrics in Static To analyze the effect of the induced
dipoles, we define the Polarization
Electric Field Vector, P, which is the volume density
of the electric dipole moment
• Usually dielectrics have neutral macroscopic
molecules

• But the presence of an external electric field can

cause a force to be exerted on each charge particle
and results in the small movements of positive and
negative charges in opposite directions

• This creates electric dipoles and therefore causes

the dielectric material to have polarity Cross section of Polarized dielectric
medium
• This induced electric dipoles will modify the
electric field both inside and outside the dielectric
material
Equivalent polarization surface charge
• With the applied electric field on a dielectric, the density
dipoles tend to align in a manner shown above.
Otherwise, they are random
Equivalent polarization volume charge
58 density
 The electric field intensity E gives rise Gauss Law states that the total outward
to a volume charge density in free flux over any closed surface is equal to the
space. Now a given source in a total free charge enclosed in that surface
dielectric will also produce a
polarization volume charge density. IS GAUSS LAW APPLICABLE TO FREE SPACE
Therefore the electric field intensity E, OR DIELECTRIC MEDIUM, or both ??
for a given source distribution (free
charges) in a dielectric will be
When the dielectric properties of the
medium are linear and isotropic, the
polarization, P is directly proportional to the
electric field intensity, E, as shown

D is the electric flux density

or electric displacement

GAUSS LAW
Where ɛr is known as relative permittivity
or dielectric constant of the medium and
Xe is called electric susceptibility
59
 Boundary Conditions for Electrostatic Fields
• Electromagnetic problems usually
involve different media

• Therefore knowledge of field

relations are the media interfaces
in important
Interface between two media
• For example, how does E and D
change after leaving water into air
and vice versa?

• We know boundary conditions of a

conductor-free space

• Lets consider two general media BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
60
1. State and explain the boundary conditions that
must be satisfied by the electric potential at an
interface between perfect dielectric constants
er1 and er2

2. Find Ei,Di,Pi,Eo,Do from the fig. below

61
 Capacitance
•It is clear that a conductor in a static field is
equipotential

•Suppose the potential, V, is increasing due to

increase in Q

•Increase in Q will in turn increase the surface charge Capacitance of a

density everywhere by the same factor without parallel-plate
affecting the charge distribution capacitor

•Therefore we can say that the potential of an

isolated conductor is directly proportional to the
total charge on it

•The constant of proportionality C is called the

Capacitance of
capacitance of the isolated conductor, in
cylindrical capacitor
Coulomb/Volt or Farad
62
1. Assume the earth to be a large
conducting sphere (radius = 6370 km)
surrounded by air. Find its capacitance
referring to infinity

63
 Poisson’s and Laplace Equations
• Techniques of determining electric
field intensity E, electric potential
V, electric flux density D for a given
charge distribution is now known
Poisson’s Equation
• In this section, we’ll discuss certain
methods of solving electrostatic
boundary problems when the exact
charge distribution isn’t known
everywhere
Poisson’s equation in Cartesian Coordinates
• Here, we use Laplace and Poisson
At a point in a medium where there is no free charge
equations
the Poisson equations reduces to

• Simply put, Laplace equation are

used when there are no electrical Laplace’s equation
charges and Poisson is used when
electrical charges exist

64
1. The radius of the inner conductor of a
long coaxial cable is a. The inner
radius of the outer conductor is b. If
the inner and outer conductors are kept
at potentials V0 and 0 respectively,
determine the electric potential, V, and
Electric Field Intensity, E in the
insulating material by solving
Laplace’s equation 65
 4. Steady Electric Currents
• We have considered static electric fields in Section 3 and the
boundary conditions associated with static electric fields

• We’ll now consider charges in motion. These charges constitute

current flow

• 2 main types of currents: Conduction current and Convection

current

• Conduction current: Drift motion of electrons in conductors and

semiconductors. Their Average drift velocities are low, (about
0.001 m/s)
• Convection current: Motion of electrons or ions in a vacuum or
in rarefied gas 66
Current density and Ohm’s Law: convection current

Consider a steady motion of one

kind of charge carriers, each of
charges q over a differential
surface ΔS, with velocity U. If N is
the number of charge carriers
per unit volume, then the total
amount of charges ΔQ passing
this surface in a time interval Δt
is: ¿ 67
Current density and Ohm’s Law: conduction current

For a current density of

7 (A/) in Copper with
conductivity 5.8xS/m.
Find the Electric
Intensity and the
Electron drift velocity

Ans. E = 0.121 V/m, u =

0.000387 m/s

68
 Resistance and Conductance

Resistance of a straight homogeneous material of uniform cross section

𝟏 𝑺
Conductance 𝑮= =𝜹 ( 𝑺 ) 𝒐𝒓 (𝛀−𝟏 )
𝑹 𝒍
69
1. Three resistors having resistances 1 MΩ, 2 MΩ, and 4
MΩ are connected in parallel. Calculate the overall
conductance and resistance
Ans. (1) 1.75 µOhm, (2) 0.57 MΩ

2. Determine the dc-resistance of a 1km copper wire

having a 1mm radius. Conductivity of copper is 5.80 x
107 S/m
• If an aluminium wire of the same length having the
same resistance is used. What is the radius of the wire.
Conductivity of aluminium is 3.54 x 107 S/m
Ans. (1) 5.49 Ohm, (2) 1.28 mm
70
• Analytically Explain the following equations related
to Steady Currents

– (General)
Differential Form Integral Form
For Steady Currents: 𝛻 ∙ 𝐉=0 ∮ 𝐉. 𝑑𝑠=0
𝑺

1
𝛻×
𝐉
( )
=0 ∮ 𝜎 𝐉 . 𝑑𝑙=0
∑ ¿¿
𝜎 𝑺

2. .
Boundary Conditions
𝑗
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

71
Two blocks of conducting material are in
contact at the z=0 plane. At a point P in the
interface, the current density is in medium 1 of
conductivity σ1. Determine in medium 2 if σ2 =
2σ1

Ans.

72
 5. Static Magnetic Fields
• We have discussed static fields where we
discussed the vectors D and E, where D = ɛE
in a linear isotropic medium

Permanent magnet
• In this section, we’ll proceed to discuss
magnetism and introduce the vector
quantities B and H

• Words like magnet, magnetism,

magnetization come from the ancient city
called Magnesia where the phenomenon of
magnetism was discovered

• A magnetic field can be caused by a moving

charge, or by current flow or by a
Current-carrying conductor
permanent magnet
73
Electric intensity, E, is defined as
the force on a stationary charge ¿
When the test charge is moving
in a magnetic field, with
magnetic flux density B, it
experiences the same force
¿
given as shown. Where u is the
velocity of the moving charge in
meters/second
Then the total electromagnetic force
(Fe + Fq) on a charge q is given as ¿
shown. B is measured in webers per Lorentz’s Force equation
sq. meter () or Tesla
• Charges in motion produce a current. The current in turn, creates a magnetic field. If the
current is steady, they are accompanied by static magnetic fields

• Therefore to understand the vector B,, we have to identify the divergence and curl of
the B, as Helmholtz stated.
74
Fundamental Postulates of Magnetostatics in Non-magnetic media (e.g. FREE SPACE)

𝛻 ∙ 𝑩=0 ∮ 𝐁∙ 𝑑 𝒔=0
𝑺

𝛻 × 𝑩=𝜇 0 𝐉
∮ 𝑩∙ 𝑑𝒍=𝜇0 𝐈
𝑪
Differential form
Integral form

1. The divergence of the magnetic flux density is equal to zero (or vanishes)

2. The curl of the static magnetic flux density in a non-magnetic medium is equal to the current
density,J

3. Comparing the electrostatic divergence equation to the magnetostatic divergence equation,

we can conclude that THERE ARE NO MAGNETIC FLOW SOURCES

4. is also referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux, which is: The total outward
magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero
75
 The magnetic field
• Permanent magnets, like bar magnets,
are usually designated into North and
South poles

Successive division of a bar magnet

• However, an isolated north pole or an
isolated south pole cannot exist

• For example, no matter how small a bar

magnet is divided, there’ll always be a
north pole and a south pole

• This means, unlike electric charges,

magnetic charges do not exist. It always
exist in dipoles

• This will be further explained by Gauss’

Law for magnetism (Maxwell’s equations) Attraction and repulsion of a magnet
76
 Vector Magnetic Potential
Static E-field potential
The vector magnetic potential is given by

𝐁=𝛁 ×𝐕 𝐓𝐞𝐬𝐥𝐚(𝐓)
To understand the magnetic potential V, we
can have to define its divergence and curl
according to Helmholtz Finding the vector magnetic
potential from current density
𝛁 ×𝐁=𝛁×𝛁×𝐕=𝜇0 𝐉
𝟐
𝛁 ×𝛁 ×𝐕=𝛁 ( 𝛁∙ 𝐕 ) −𝛁 𝐕
𝛁 𝟐 𝐕=𝛁 ( 𝛁 ∙𝐕 ) −𝛁×𝛁× 𝐕 Finding the vector magnetic
potential from current in a
𝜇0 𝐉 closed circuit

𝛁 ( 𝛁∙ 𝐕 ) −𝛁𝟐 𝐕=𝜇0 𝐉 𝐁=
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑 𝒍 ′ × 𝒂𝑹
∮ 𝑅2 (T )
4𝜋 𝐶
𝛁 ∙𝐕=𝟎
′

Using the Coulomb’s conditions: Biot-Savart Law

For finding Magnetic flux density from
𝛁 𝟐 𝐕=−𝜇0 𝐉 Vector Poisson’s Current in a closed circuit 77
Just like with static E fields, a magnetic material ¿
under the influence of a magnetic field will be Magnetization surface current density
affected

Atoms have nucleus and orbiting electrons.

¿
Magnetization volume current density
The orbiting electrons produces currents and
cause magnetic dipoles

In the absence of an external electric field, the

magnetic dipoles have random orientation and no
net magnetic dipole moment. The applications of
an external magnetic field introduces dipole
moments due to the movement and spinning of
the electrons

The magnetic material becomes polarized and

introduces a magnetization vector, M

IF M is uniform inside a material, the currents in

¿
the dipoles will flow in opposite direction and Curl of magnetic flux
cancel each other, leaving Jmv = 0, otherwise it is density in the presence
non-zero of a magnetized material 78
 Magnetic field Intensity, H, and relative permeability, µ
When the magnetic medium is linear
¿ and isotropic, the magnetization is
proportional to the magnetic field
1 intensity
𝛻 ×𝐁= 𝐉+ 𝐉 𝐦𝐯 = 𝐉+ 𝛻 ×𝐌
𝜇0 𝐌= 𝜒 𝑚 𝐇

𝛻×
( 𝐁
𝜇0
−𝐌 = 𝐉
)
𝐇= ( 𝐁
𝜇0 )
−𝐌 ( A / m )

𝛻 × 𝐇= 𝐉 ( A / m 2 )

𝑩𝟏𝒏 =𝑩𝟐𝒏 (𝝁𝟏 𝑯 𝟏𝒏=𝝁𝟐 𝑯 𝟐𝒏 )

Using Stokes theorem 𝐇1 𝒕 =𝐇 2 𝒕
∮ 𝐇 ∙ 𝑑𝑙=𝐼 ( A ) Ampere’s circuital law
for steady currents
Boundary Conditions
Magnetostatic Fields
c
79
6. Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations
• Static models are simple but inadequate for explaining time-varying
electromagnetic phenomena

• Static fields do not give rise to waves that propagates and carry energy

• Waves are the outcomes of EM action at a distance

• In time-varying fields, a model that relates the field vectors E and D, with B
and H will be created

• In time-varying fields, the two divergence equations for static electric fields
and static magnetic will be used, and their two curl equations will be
modified so it is consistent with the law of conservation of charge

• The two modified curl equations and the two divergence equations are
known as Maxwell’s equations, which constitute the foundation of
electromagnetics 50
 FARADAY’S LAW

𝑑ɸ
𝐸 MF=− N (V )
𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐁
𝛻 × 𝐄=−
𝜕𝑡
FARADAY’S LAW
Faraday’s Experimental setup

How can I increase

magnitude of the EMF?

Define Faraday’s law ??

Interpretation of Faraday’s law in electromagnetics ??50

 AMPERE’S LAW
Ampere’s Law relates the net magnetic field along a closed loop to the
electric current flowing through the loop

𝜕𝐃
𝛻 × 𝐇= 𝐉+
𝜕𝑡

Interpretation of Ampere’s law ??

50
 Maxwell’s equations
• James Clerk Maxwell’s [1837 – 1879] took a set of known experimental laws
and unified them into a coherent set of equations known as Maxwell’s
equations
• Maxwell was one of the first to determine the speed of an EM wave was the
same as the speed of light – and conclude that EM waves and visible light
were really the same thing

𝛻 ∙ 𝐃=𝜌 𝑣 ∮ 𝐃 ∙ 𝑑 𝒔=∫ 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝒗 For electric field

𝑠 𝑉

𝛻 ∙ 𝐁=0 ∮ 𝐁∙ 𝑑 𝒔=0
𝑠

𝜕𝐁 𝜕𝐁
𝛻 × 𝐄=−
𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑙=∫ 𝜕 𝑡 ∙ 𝑑 𝒔 𝐅𝐀𝐑𝐀𝐃𝐀 𝐘 ′ 𝐒𝐋𝐀𝐖
𝑐 𝑠

( )
𝜕𝐃 𝜕𝐃
𝛻 × 𝐇= 𝐉+
𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐇 ∙ 𝑑𝑙=∫ 𝐉+ ∙𝑑𝒔 𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐄𝐑𝐄′𝐒𝐋𝐀𝐖
𝑐 𝑠
𝜕𝑡
Differential Form Integral Form 50
 • Relevance of Maxwell’s third and Fourth
Equations ??

• Boundary conditions of Time-Varying electric

fields between two media

How do these boundary conditions change in lossless media ??

How do these boundary conditions change between a dielectric and a

perfect conductor ?? 50
 GROUP ASSIGNMENT
Question 1
Electromagnetic waves carry with them electromagnetic power.
Introduce the concept of POYNTING VECTOR analytically.

Discuss how plane waves are generated.

Question 2
Use MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS TO EXPLAIN HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES BEHAVE INSIDE CONDUCTORS.

• Introduce the concept of Skin Depth and Skin Effect