Management & Entrepreneurship

(Course Code:10AL51)

Department of IE & M
JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bengaluru-560060
 TEXT BOOKS:

1. Principles of Management – P.C.Tripathi, P.N.Reddy – Tata McGraw Hill.

2. Dynamics of Entrepreneurial Development & Management – Vasant Desai – Himalaya Publishing House.
3. Entrepreneurship Development – Poornima.M.Charantimath – Small Business Enterprises – Pearson Education – 2006.
4. Management & Enterpreneruship -N V R Naidu, IK Internatioal, 2008

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Management Fundamentals – Concepts, Application, Skill Development – Robers Lusier – Thomson.

2. Entrepreneurship Development – S.S.Khanka – S.Chand & Co.
3. Management – Stephen Robbins – Pearson Education/PHI – 17 Edition, 2003.
 COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, students will be able to,

CO# Course Outcomes

Explain the importance of management and its approaches.

CO1

Explain the roles and responsibilities of staff towards organization.

CO2

Outline the quality and characteristics of an entrepreneur.

CO3

Explain the importance of Small scale industries in economic development.

CO4

Design, plan and prepare project proposals and reports.

CO5
Principles of Management

CHAPTER 1: Definition ,Principles and Basics of

Management
 Course outline

• Introduction – Meaning – nature and characteristics of Management.

• Scope and Functional areas of management.

• Management as a science, art of profession.

• Management & Administration – Roles of Management.

• Levels of Management.

• Development of Management Thought – early management approaches.

• Modern management approaches.

Definition
Management Defined

Management is the process of achieving goals and

1
objectives effectively and efficiently through and with the
people.

"Management is a process of designing and maintaining

2 an environment in which individuals work together in
groups to effectively and efficiently accomplish selected
aims".
Management Defined Cont’d

Management is the process of achieving organizational goals and

3
objectives effectively and efficiently by using management functions
i.e. (Five Essential Functions)
– Planning

– Organizing

– Staffing

– Directing (Leading)

– Controlling (POSDC)

4 Management is a set of activities directed at an organization's

resources with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an
efficient and effective manner.
 Management Cycle

Planning

Controlling Organising

Directing Staffing
 Functions of management

Planning is the process of setting goals, and charting the best way of action for achieving the
1 Planning
goals.

Organizing is the process of allocating and arranging work, authority and resources, to the
2 Organizing
members of the organization so that they can successfully execute the plans.

Staffing is the process of recruiting /selecting the right person for the right job at the right time in
3 Staffing
the right place.

Leading/
4 Leading involves directing, influencing and motivating employees to perform essential tasks.
Directing

Controlling is the process of devising various checks to ensure that planned performance is
5 Controlling
actually achieved. It involves ensuring that actual activities conform to the planned activities.
These definitions when expanded have these implications:

• Management is thus a continuous effort aimed at shaping an organization and

contributing to its overall growth.

• The functions of managers include planning, organizing, staffing, leading and

controlling.

• These functions are essential to any kind of organization.

• It applies to managers at all hierarchical levels.

• The aim of managers is to increase productivity, effectiveness and efficiency.

Elements of definition
• Process - represents ongoing functions or primary activities engaged in by managers.

• Efficiency - getting the most output from the least amount of inputs.
• “doing things right”.
• concerned with means.
• Achieving the objectives in time.

• Effectiveness - completing activities so that organizational goals are attained

• “doing the right things” .
• concerned with ends.
• Achieving the objectives on time.
Efficiency and Effectiveness
Management: Science or Art?

• Science is a collection of systematic knowledge, collection of truths and

inferences after continuous study and experiments. It has fundamental
principles discovered.

• Art uses the known rules and principles and uses the skill, expertise, wisdom,
experience to achieve the desired result.

Management is both Art and Science.

Management has got scientific principles which constitute the elements of Science.
Skills and talent which are attributes of Art.
Principles of Management
Fayol’s Principles of Management

He has proposed that, there are six primary functions of

management and 14 principles of management, Forecasting,

Planning, Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, Controlling.

(FPOCCC) Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

• There are 14 Principles of Management described by Henri Fayol.

14 Principles of Henri Fayol
1. Division of Labor

• Work of all kinds must be divided & subdivided and allotted to

various persons according to their expertise in a particular area.

2. Authority & Responsibility

• Authority refers to the right of superiors to get exactness

from their sub-ordinates.
• Responsibility means obligation for the performance of the
job assigned.
Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is exercised
14 Principles of Henri Fayol

3. Unity of Command

• A sub-ordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only

one boss at a time.
• He should not receive instructions from more than one person

4. Unity of Direction

• People engaged in the same kind of business or same kind of activities must
have the same objectives in a single plan.

• Without unity of direction, unity of action cannot be achieved.

14 Principles of Henri Fayol

5. Equity

• Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice.

• The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is

expected of them.

6. Order

• This principle is concerned with proper & systematic arrangement of things

and people.
• Arrangement of things is called material order and placement of people is
called social order.
14 Principles of Henri Fayol
7. Discipline

• Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance of

rules and regulations of the enterprise.

• Subordinate should respect their superiors and obey their order.

8. Initiative

• Initiative means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so.

• Management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas,
experiences & new method of work.
14 Principles of Henri Fayol
9. Remuneration

• Remuneration to be paid to the workers should be fair, reasonable,

satisfactory & rewarding of the efforts.

• It should accord satisfaction to both employer and the employees.

10. Stability of Tenure

• Employees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another
i.e. the period of service in a job should be fixed.
 14 Principles of Henri Fayol
11. Scalar Chain
• Scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the
lowest.

• Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain

creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all
parties and superiors are kept informed.

12. Sub-ordination of Individual Interest to common goal

• An organization is much bigger than the individual.

• The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take
precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole.
14 Principles of Henri Fayol

13. Espirit De’ Corps

• It refers to team spirit i.e. harmony in the work groups and mutual
understanding among the members.

Espirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder.

14. Centralization

• Centralization refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in

decision making.
• Whether decision making is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to
subordinates) is a question of proper proportion.
The task is to find the optimum degree of centralization for each situation.
 Theory X and Y Douglas McGregor

Theory X Theory Y
• Average worker is lazy • Workers are not inherently lazy
• Dislikes work • Do not naturally dislike work
• Will try to do as little as possible • If given the opportunity, will do what is
• Have little ambition and avoid good for the organization.
responsibility
Scope & Characteristics of Management
 Scope of Management

The management is a must for every organization.

• The existence of management ensures proper function and running of an enterprise.

• Management plans the activities, coordinates and utilizes the available resources

effectively and efficiently at minimum cost.

Characteristics of Management

 It should be stable.

 It should be applicable to all kinds of organization.

 It should be transparent.

 Its approaches are to be clear and objective oriented.

 It should be simple yet effective.

Basics of Management
 Organization

Organizations are groups of people, with ideas and resources, working toward
common goals.
OR

A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some

specific purpose is called organization.
Characteristics of Organization

Deliberate
Distinct Purpose
Structure

People
 Manager

• A manager is someone whose primary responsibility is to

carry out the management process within an organization to

achieve the organizational goals.

Managerial skills

Managerial Skills

Primary Skills Secondary Skills

• Conceptual Skill • Design Skill
• Technical Skill • Communication Skill
• Human Skill • Leadership Skill
 Managerial skills

• Conceptual skills
• Diagnostic, analytical, and critical-thinking skills
• Quantitative reasoning skills
• Time management skills
• Communication skills
• Team skills
• Diversity skills
• Power, political, negotiation, and networking skills
• Motivation skills
• Conflict management skills
• Ethics skills

Familiarity and competence in the use of business skills required for success on the job.
Managerial skills Cont’d

Conceptual • Ability to think and conceptualize abstract situations.

skills
• Mental capacity to develop plans, strategies and vision.

Human /
• Ability to understand other people and interact effectively with them.
interpersonal
skills • Ability to work with other people in teams.
Managerial skills Cont’d

Technical • Ability to use the knowledge or techniques of a particular

skills
discipline to attain ends.

• These skills enable a manager to handle and solve any kind of unforeseen or
Design skills actual problems, that may crop up in the organization.
• Problem solving skill.
Managerial skills Cont’d

Communication • Ability of exchanging ideas and information effectively.

skills
• To understand others and let others understand comprehensively.

Leadership
skills • Ability to influence other people to achieve the common goal.
Skill distribution at various management levels
Roles of manager
Role: a set of expectation for one’s behavior.

• In 1960, Henry Mintzberg conducted a study to understand about the managerial roles.
• He identified 10 managerial roles that are common to all managers.
• These 10 managerial roles are grouped under: Interpersonal, decisional, and informational roles.

Roles of Manager

Interpersonal Decisional Informational

• Figurehead • Entrepreneur
• Leader • Monitor
• Disturbance handler
• Liaison • Disseminator
• Resource allocator
• Spokesperson
• Negotiator
Management Skills, Functions, and Roles
 Roles of manager Cont’d

Inter-personal Role

Role: Represents the company on social occasions.

Figurehead E.g. Attending the flag hosting ceremony, receiving visitors or taking visitors for dinner
etc.

Role: The manager motivates, encourages, and builds enthusiasm

Leader among the employees. Training subordinates to work under pressure.

• Relating to others outside the group or organization.

Liaison • Serves as a link between people, groups or organization
E.g. Negotiation of prices with the suppliers regarding raw materials.
Roles of manager Cont’d

Decision Role

• Act as an initiator and designer and encourage changes and innovation,

Entrepreneur identify new ideas, delegate idea and responsibility to others.

Disturbance • Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolves conflicts among
handler subordinates; adapt to environmental crisis.

Resource • Decides distribution of resources among various individuals and groups in

allocator the organization.

• Negotiates with subordinates, groups or organizations- both internal and

Negotiator external.
E.g. Represents department during negotiation of union contracts, sales, purchases, budgets;
represent departmental interests.
Roles of manager Cont’d

Informational Role

• Emerges as nerve center of internal and external information about

Monitor Information.

• Transmits information received from other employees to members of the

Disseminator organization.

• Transmits information to the people who are external to the organization,

i.e., government, media etc.
Spokesperson E.g., manager addresses a press conference announcing a new product
launch or other major deal.
Levels of Management

Top
Management
President, CEO,
Executive
Vice Presidents

Middle Management
Plant Managers, Division Managers,
Department Managers

First-Line Management
Foreman, Supervisors, Office Managers

Non- Managerial Employees

Levels of Management

• Sets the Vision, mission and goals, develop policies.

Top Level • Evaluates the overall performance of various departments.

• Responsible for the business as a whole and is concerned mainly with long-term planning.

• Develops departmental goals.

Middle Level • Executes the policies, plans and strategies determined by top level management.
• Develops medium- term plans and supervises and coordinates lower-level managers’ activities.

• Takes charge of day-to-day operations.

Lower Level • Involved in preparing detailed short-range plans.
• executes plans of middle management.
Skills/Functions performed at the different Management levels
 Most

Least
Important
Important
Planning
Organizing

Top
Staffing

Managers
Directing
Controlling

Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Middle
Managers

Directing
Controlling

Planning
Organizing
Staffing
First-Line

Directing
Managers

Controlling
Importance of management functions to managers in each level
Management & Administration
Management & Administration

• Administration involves “thinking”, it is a top level function.

• Management involves “doing” and is a lower level function.

Characteristics Administration Management

Main Function Planning ,Organising and staffing Leading & Controlling

Status Act as owner Act as an agency

Skills Good Administrative skills More technical skills
Level in the organization Top level Middle/Lower level
Position MD, Owner, CEO Manager , Supervisor, foremen
etc…
Objective Makes the polices & objective to be Implements the plans and policies
achieved
Involvement No direct involvement in production or Directly involves in the execution of
service plans and achieving objectives
Evolution of Management
Major Approaches to Management
Historical Background
The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are proof that projects of tremendous
scope, employing tens of thousands of people, were completed in ancient times. It took
more than 100,000 workers some 20 years to construct a single pyramid. Who told each
worker what to do? The answer is managers.

In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, in which he argued the
economic advantages that organizations and society would gain from the division
of labor (or job specialization)—that is, breaking down jobs into narrow and
repetitive tasks. Using the pin industry as an example, Smith claimed that 10
individuals, each doing a specialized task, could produce about 48,000 pins
a day among them.

Late 18 century when machine power was substituted for human power, a point in
history known as the industrial revolution, it became more economical to
manufacture goods in factories. Large efficient factories needed someone to
forecast demand, ensure that enough material was on hand to make products,
assign tasks to people, direct daily activities, and so forth. That “someone” was a
manager.
Classical Approaches
• The first studies of management, often called the classical approach.
• Based on the belief that employees have only economical and physical needs.
• Social needs and need for job satisfaction does not exists/unimportant.
• Mainly concerned with increasing efficiency of workers.
• Classical approach includes scientific, administrative & bureaucratic management.

Scientific
Focuses on the ‘One Best Way” to do a job.
Management

Administrative
Focuses on the Manager & Basic Managerial Functions.
Management

Bureaucratic
Focuses on how to structure the organization better.
Management
Classical Approach
F.W. Taylor

Scientific Management Frank & Lillian

Theories Gilbreth

Henry Gantt

Henri Fayol
General Administrative
Theories
Max Weber
Scientific Management
 Frederick Winslow Taylor (Contribution to Modern Management Theory-1911)

 1911- Frederick Winslow Taylor’s “Principles of Scientific Management” was

published.

 Its contents were widely embraced by managers around the world.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

 Taylor’s book described the theory of scientific management: (1856-1915)

 Use of scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done.
Frederick Winslow Taylor (Contribution to Modern Management Theory-1911)

Background

• Frederick Winslow Taylor (20 march 1856 - 21 March 1915) known as F.W.

Taylor, was an American Mechanical Engineer.

Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856-1915)
• He sought to improve Industrial Efficiency.

• He is regarded as the father of Scientific Management, and was one of the

first Management consultants.

• Published principles of scientific management in 1911.

Frederick W. Taylor’s - Pig-Iron Experiment
Bethlehem Steel Company Shop Floor
 Pig-Iron Experiment

Bethlehem Experiments – Pig-Iron Handling

• Taylor was hired by the Bethlehem Steel Company to increase the output of one of the larger

machine shops which had been a serious production bottleneck.

• In this experiment, workers used to loaded “pigs” of iron (each weighing 12.5 tons) onto rail cars.

• Their daily average output was 12.5 tons.

• Taylor believed that by scientifically analyzing the job to determine the “one best way” to load pig iron.
 Pig-Iron Experiment
The Story
• Taylor went down to the yard, offered a few of the best workers double wage for the day if they
would participate in his experiment.

• Excited about the money, the workers loaded a whopping 16.5 tons in 45 minutes.

• He had to adjust for rest and breaks, so he made a 40% cut.

• Each worker should load 47.5 tons of pig iron per day with extra pay for reaching the goal and
penalties for failing.
• Unfortunately, the workers were not excited about needing to work 4x harder.
• To prove it was possible, Taylor hired a new man with a 60% rise in wages. After an intense
day, the new man loaded 45.75 tons, almost hitting the quota.
• Taylor decided he had succeeded.
 Pig-Iron Experiment

The main things Taylor noticed for inefficiency;

1. The lack of standard tools or techniques.

Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856-1915)
2. There is no match between skill and job.

3. No motivation from the management.

 Outcome of Pig-Iron Experiment

1. Taking breaks key to productivity.

 Periodic rests enabled a worker to produce more than continuous work.

 By a systematic resting time and improved methods average productivity was raised from 12.5

tons to 47.5 tons per day.

2. Workers should be selected according to job fit.

 By putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment, having the worker follow

his instructions exactly, and motivating the worker with an economic incentive.
 Frederick Winslow Taylor (Contribution to Modern Management Theory-1911)

Taylor’s 4 principles of Scientific Management

1. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work to replace the old rule-of

thumb method.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
2. Scientifically select, then train and develop the worker. (1856-1915)

3. Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance

with the principles of the science that has been developed.

4. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers.
Frank B Gilbreth & Lillian M Gilbreth
 Frank B Gilbreth

• Refused a place in MIT to work as a laborer.

• His first job was apprentice brick layer.
• He was able to lay 2700 bricks/day compared to others who
were laying an average of 1000 bricks/day.
Frank B Gilbreth
• Motions to lay a brick reduced to 4 from 18. (1868-1924)

Gilbreth’s new methods, bricks are Typical construction site in Boston Building constructed by Frank at
arranged to be grabbed easily. before Gilbreth’s New method. MIT in record time.
 Frank B Gilbreth & Lillian M Gilbreth

• Followers of Taylor

• Frank B Gilbreth (1868-1924) pioneered Time & Motion study.

• His work had great impact on medical surgery, by drastically reducing the

time patients spent on operating table.

• He invented a device – “Micro Chronometer” in order to record workers Frank B Gilbreth & Lillian M Gilbreth

movement and the amount of time spent on job.

• He performed experiments that focused on specific motions such as
“Bricklaying experiment”, resulted in a dramatic decrease in the number of
motions required to lay bricks.
• On the basis of their study and experiments he gave shape to 17 principles
known as “THERBLIG”
THERBLIG / 17 principles

• Therbligs are 18 kinds of

elemental motions used in the

study of motion economy in the

workplace.

• A basic motion element is one

of a set of fundamental motions

required for a worker to perform

a manual operation or task

 General Administrative Theories

Henri Fayol
General Administrative
Theories
Max Weber
General Administrative Theories (Henry Fayol)

• Father of Modern operational management theory.

• French Mining Engineer & Management Theorist.

• Started as an Engineer at a mining company and became Director in 1888.

• Viewed management as profession that can be trained and developed.

Henry Fayol
• First one to analyze the functions of management. (1841-1925)

• Developed 14 principles of management—fundamental rules of management

that could be applied to all organizational situations.

General Administrative Theories (Henry Fayol)

Three major contributions to the theory of management

1. A clear distinction between Technical & Managerial skills.

2. Identified functions constituting the management process (FPOCCC).

Henry Fayol
(1841-1925)
3. Developed 14 principles of management.
General Administrative Theories (Max Weber)

• German Theorist and Sociologist

• Follower of General Administrative Theory proposed by Henry Fayol.

• Introduced most of the concepts on bureaucratic organization.

• Weber envisioned organization would be managed on an Impersonal and Max Weber

(1864-1920)
Rational basis. This form of organization is known as Bureaucracy.
Characteristics of Weber's Bureaucracy
Characteristics of Weber's Bureaucracy
 Behavioral Approach

Behavioral Approach

Early OB Advocates

Hawthorne Studies

OB
• The field of study that researches the actions (behaviour) of people at work is
called organizational behaviour (OB).

• Much of what managers do today when managing people—

Motivating, leading, building trust, working with a team, managing conflict,
and so forth—outcome of OB research.
Early OB Advocates
Early OB Advocates

• People were the most important asset of the organization and should be managed
accordingly.

• It provides the foundation for management practices, like employee selection

procedures, motivation programs, and work-teams.
Early OB Advocates
Hawthorne Studies/Experiment

Elton Mayo (left) with Fritz J Roethlisberger

Hawthorne Studies / Experiment

• George Elton Mayo, born December 26, 1880, in Australia.

• In 1926, Mayo became the professor of industrial research at

Harvard University where he met Fritz Roethlisberger.

George Elton Mayo

• Received scholarship to do research at the University of

Pennsylvania’s Wharton school.

• During his time in Pennsylvania, he conducted the experiment

which made him famous, the Hawthorne Experiment.

Hawthorne Studies / Experiment

The Hawthorne experiment consists of four parts

I. Part I - Illumination Experiments (1924-27)

II. Part II - Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1929)

III. Part III - Mass Interviewing Programme (1928-1930)

Western Electric Company
IV. Part IV - Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1932)
Illumination Experiment (1924-1927)

• Funded by General Electric.

• Purpose of the study: To Study The Effect Of Various Lighting Conditions

on The Workers Productivity.

• Divided the workers into two Groups.

• Hypothesis: with higher illumination, productivity would increase.

• Group -1 :- Lighting Condition Improved And The Productivity Went

Up.

• Group-2 :- Lighting Condition Remained Constant And The Productivity

Increased.

• Measured Light Intensity vs. Worker Output.

Illumination Experiment

Result :

– Rejected the hypothesis.

– Higher worker productivity and satisfaction at all light levels.

– Worker productivity was stopped with the light levels reached moonlight intensity.

Conclusions:

– Light intensity has no conclusive effect on output.

– Productivity has a psychological component.

Concept of “Hawthorne Effect” was created.

Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1929)

• Under these test two small groups of six female telephone relay
assemblers were selected.
• Each group was kept in separate rooms.

• From time to time, changes were made in working hours, rest

periods, lunch breaks, etc.

• They were allowed to choose their own rest periods and to give Women in the relay test assembly room

suggestions.
• Output increased in both the control rooms.

• It was concluded that, social relationship among workers,

participation in decision-making, etc. had a greater effect on
productivity than working conditions.
Mass Interviewing Programme (1928-1930)

• Conducted 20,000 interviews.

• Objective was to explore information, which could be used to

improve supervisory training.

• Initially used the method of Direct Questioning and changed to Non

Directive.
Results:

 Merely giving an opportunity to talk and express grievances would

increase the morale.

 Complaints were symptoms of deep-rooted disturbances.

 Workers are governed by experience obtained from both inside and

outside the company.
Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1932)

• A group of 14 male workers (9 Wiremen, 3 Soldermen, 2 inspector) in

the bank wiring room were placed under observation for six months.

• A worker's pay depended on the performance of the group as a whole.

• The researchers thought that the efficient workers would put pressure
on the less efficient workers to complete the work.

• However, it was found that the group established its own standards of
output, and social pressure was used to achieve the standards of output.
 CONCLUSIONS OF HAWTHORNE STUDIES / EXPERIMENTS

• The informal relations among workers influence the workers behavior and performance.

• Employees will perform better if they are allowed to participate in decision-making.

• Employees will also work more efficiently, when they believe that the management is interested in
their welfare.

• When employees are treated with respect and dignity, their performance will improve.

• Financial incentives alone cannot increase the performance. Social and Psychological needs must
also be satisfied in order to increase productivity.

• Good communication between the superiors and subordinates can improve the relations and the
productivity of the subordinates.

• Special attention and freedom to express their views will improve the performance of the workers.
Quantitative Approach
– Used quantitative techniques to improve decision- making.

– Evolved from mathematical and statistical solutions developed for military

problems during World War II.

– W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Duran’s ideas became the basis for total

quality management (TQM).

Contemporary Approach

Contemporary
Approach

System Approach

Contingency Approach
System Approach

The Systems Approach Defines a system as a set of interrelated and interdependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.

• Open system: A system that dynamically interacts with its environment.

• Closed system : A system that is not influenced by and does not interact with its environment.

• Stakeholders: Any group that is affected by organizational decisions and policies.

System Approach

Open-system Perspective of an Organization

Open system: A system that dynamically interacts with its environment.
 Contingency Approach / Situational approach

• The contingency approach says that organizations are different, face different situations

(contingencies), and require different ways of managing.

• A good way to describe contingency is: “if, then.”

• If, this is the way my situation is; then, this is the best way for me to manage in this situation.
Contingency Approach / situational approach

Contingency Variables

As size increases, so do the problems of coordination.

Organization Size E.g.: Organization structure appropriate for an organization of 50,000 employees is
likely to be inefficient for an organization of 50 employees

To achieve its purpose, an organization uses technology.

Routineness of
• Routine technologies require organizational structures, leadership styles, and
Task Technology
control systems

Environmental Degree of uncertainty caused by environmental changes influences the management

Uncertainty process.

Individual Individuals differ in terms of their desire for growth, autonomy, tolerance of ambiguity,
Differences and expectations.
End of Module