Chapter 01

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
 Introduction to PSYCHOLOGY
 We are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives; we all
have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do.
 In many ways I am sure that your conceptions are correct.
 Psychologists do work in forensic (medical) fields, and they do provide counseling and
therapy for people in distress.
 But there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them
work in other places, doing work that you are probably not aware of.
 Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings
where they study the behaviour of humans and animals.
 For instance, my fraternity in the Psychology Department in the Universities all over
Pakistan study such diverse topics as:
 anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on
thinking, how birds recognize each other, how people from different cultures react
differently in negotiation, and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism.
 Other psychologists study topics such as:
 alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, love, what makes people
aggressive or helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and
religion.
─ Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of
methods, including:
o Observation,
o questionnaires,
o interviews,
o and laboratory studies---to help them understand behaviour
• (The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what
time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a
standardized procedure.)
• This Course provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and
many approaches that psychologists take to understanding human behaviour.
• I expect that you may find that at least some of your presumptions
(preconceptions) about psychology will be challenged and changed, and you
will learn that psychology is a field that will provide you with new ways of
thinking about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
 What Exactly is Behavior?

 Behavior In its broader sense includes all types of human activities i.e. Behavior is
both mental and bodily
 Behavior has two aspects:
– Bodily behaviours: refers to Actions refer to what an individual does.—
means the movements and actions of the body in response to a situation
• Motor activities (Walking, speaking, running, sleeping, eating, crawling,
kneeling, jumping, dancing, swimming, smiling etc ) ƒ
– Mental Behaviour: are thinking, reasoning, imagination and other mental
experiences or processes.
• Cognitive activities--Cognitive processes refer to what an individual
thinks (perceiving, remembering, thinking, reasoning, imagination,
attention, language use, memory, problem solving, creativity, observing)
ƒ
• Emotional activities----Emotional states refer to what an individual feels,
(feeling happy, sad, angry, afraid).
 Example
 The human behavior consists of physical responses, feelings, emotions and
tensions, and all intellectual responses, perceiving, thinking, recalling, and
reasoning.
 What exactly is Behavior?
• In scientific research, human behavior is a complex interplay of three components:
actions, cognition and emotions.
• Actions, cognitions and emotions do not run independently of each other – their
proper interaction enables you to perceive the world around you, listen to your
inner wishes and respond appropriately to people in your surroundings.
• However, it is hard to tell what exactly is cause and effect – turning your head
(action) and seeing a familiar face might cause a sudden burst of joy (emotion)
accompanied by an internal realization (cognition):
 Action = emotion (joy) + cognition (“hey, there‘s Peter!”)

• In other cases, the sequence of cause and effect might be reversed: Because you’re
sad (emotion) and pondering on relationship issues (cognition), you decide to go
for a walk to clear your head (action).
 Emotion (sadness) + cognition (“I should go for a walk“) = action
 Definition of Psychology

Definition of Psychology
 Psychology is the scientific study/explanation of:
 how we think (thoughts),
 How we feel (feelings)
 and how we behave (behaviours).
 “Psychology is the scientific study (explanation) of mind (mental processes)
and behavior”.
 Behavior = outward or overt actions and reactions
 Talking, facial expressions and movement
 Mental Process = internal, covert activity
• Thinking, feeling and remembering

• Why do you act the way you do?

• Have you ever wondered why some people are the life of the party and others prefer to curl up with a
good book?
• Or why you remember certain events but not others?
─ People have studied the mind and how it works since the time of the ancient Greeks.
─ Psychology is often thought of as the science of the mind.
 Reasons To Study Psychology

• Psychology helps us understand ourselves and others better:

– Psychology helps to you better understand yourself and the
people around you.
• Develops analytical skills through use of scientific methods:
– Psychology helps learning about research methods and
statistics. Even if you don’t particularly love the research
process, learning more about how to gather, organize,
analyze, and interpret data can be an important skill in a
wide variety of careers.
• Refine critical thinking:
– As you study psychology you will learn more about topics
such as the scientific method, decision-making,
and problem-solving, all of which might help you hone your
ability to think deeply and critically about different issues.
• Develop new perspective on mental illness:
– studying psychology can help you better understand how
psychological conditions are diagnosed and treated. You can
also discover how mental wellness can be enhanced, how to
reduce stress, how to boost memory, and how to live a
happier, healthier life.
• Improving communication skills:
– Studying subjects such as emotion, language, and body
language can help you fine-tune your interpersonal
communication skills .By learning more about these things,
you can gain a greater understanding of other people and
what they are trying to say.
• Building self-confidence:
– By understanding more about yourself and your personality,
you can gain more self-confidence. You will learn more about
your weaknesses and can build on them
 Psychology as a Science

• Modern psychology is considered a science (qualifies as a science) because it bases

its conclusions on data, information obtained by systematic observations.
─ Psychology as a scientific study deals systematically with human behavior, motives, feelings,
emotions, thoughts and actions of men and women using Scientific Method to acquire
knowledge. Psychology, like other sciences, discovers and explains fundamental law and
principles of behaviour.
─ Examples:
 When we perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand what caused our
failure to remember or understand the material and what might help us do better the next
time.
 When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they appeared
to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened.
 When we expect the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try to investigate the causes
of this problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around them, and
others’ responses to them
 In a sense all humans are scientists. The answer to these “everyday” issues can teach us many
principles of human behaviour and we develop theories to explain why this is so.
─ We all have an interest in asking and answering questions about our world.
─ We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen again, and how to
reproduce or change them.
─ Such knowledge enables us to predict our own behaviour and that of others
 Goals of Psychology
 Scientific psychology has four explicit goals:
1. Describe,
2. Explain,
3. Predict, And
4. Control Behavior.

1. DESCRIBE :
 Description – What is happening?
─ Psychologists/Researchers might start by observing human behavior and then
describing a problem by understanding what is happening.
─ Observe events and behaviors, then look at how events might be related.
2. EXPLAIN:
 Explanation – Why is it happening?
─ The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of behavior.
─ Why does this event or behavior occur? (under what circumstances will it
occur?).
3. PREDICT:
 Prediction – When will it happen again?
─ Once we understand more about what happens and why it happens, we can
use that information to make predictions about when, why, and how it might
happen again in the future.

4. MODIFY/CONTROL/INFLUENCE:
 Control/Modify – How can it be changed?
• i.e. to control/modify an organism’s behavior.
─ To modify and improve behaviour to better the lives of individuals and society as
a whole.
─ Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to change, influence,
or control behavior to make constructive and lasting changes in people's lives.
• By explaining and understanding the causes of behavior, psychologists can
create programs or treatments to control or change the behaviors.
Example:
• When dealing with a child, for example, you might ask questions like:
 "What is he doing?" (describing),
 "Why is he doing that?" (explaining),
 "What would happen if I responded in this way?" (predicting),
 and "What can I do to get him to stop doing that?" (changing).
Example 2:
These goals are the same commonsense goals that we all use in everyday life.
Description: Let’s say that Jane tells her husband, Harry, that their son, seven-year-old Billy, was a brat today. Is
this a good description of Billy’s behavior? No, it’s not. It’s too general, too abstract. On the other hand, let’s
assume that Jane says that Billy refused to do his homework and told her, “Homework is stupid. I’m not going
to do it anymore.” This constitutes a much better description of behavior because is it is specific and concrete.
Similar specific descriptions may suggest to both parents that Billy misbehaves more than most children.
Explanation: Jane and Harry now wonder why Billy is beginning to misbehave more and more. Is he frustrated?
Does he have an inferiority complex? Does he have low self-esteem? Does he have Attention Deficit Disorder
(ADD)? Does he have an imbalance of certain key neurotransmitters in his brain? Does he have a childhood
neurosis? As you can see, potential explanations are plentiful. They have to be evaluated.
Prediction: This is where prediction and control come in. Let’s say that Dr. Helen G., the family pediatrician,
suggests that Billy is indeed suffering from Attention Deficit Disorder.
Let’s also assume that Dr. G. is convinced that Billy eats too many foods with refined sugar and that this causes,
through a complex biochemical reaction, a depletion of certain neurotransmitters. She recommends a diet of
natural foods with little refined sugar. The physician is predicting that the change in diet will take away the
undesirable symptoms.
Control/Modify: Let’s say that the diet is tried. Billy sticks to it. If there is no change in Billy’s misbehavior after
several weeks, both Dr. G. and the parents will conclude that the explanation was incorrect. On the other hand,
if the diet is therapeutic, and Billy’s behavior becomes more manageable, then control has taken place. The
explanation will appear to be adequate.
 Types of Research Used in Psychology
1. Basic /pure/fundamental research
2. Applied research
 Basic Research is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity
and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be
directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our
understanding of the world around us.
─ The purpose of basic research is to seek new knowledge and to explore and
advance general scientific understanding. Basic Research is completely
theoretical.
 Applied research is one type of research that is used to answer a specific
question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research
that solves a problem.
– Applied research is conducted specifically for the purpose of solving
practical problems and improving the quality of life.
• So, the real difference between the two types of research is what they will be
used for. Will the research be used to help us understand a real world
problem and solve it, or will the research further our general information?
Examples
Examples of basic research in psychology include:
– How do panic attacks happen?
– What are the symptoms of anxiety disorders?
Examples of applied research in psychology include:
– What are the treatment options for anxiety disorders?
– What are the ways to improve employees’ productivity in the workplace?
• Basic research is also known as pure or fundamental research because it is
knowledge-specific while applied research primary focus is on providing a
solution to a specific problem.
• Basic research explores the functions and features of newly discovered
phenomena in order to improve the understanding of these concepts hence; it
fuels scientific and technological innovations. Applied research, on the other
hand, helps to provide solutions to improve a specific condition or create new
technology.
 Fields/types of Psychology

─ Psychology is a broad and diverse field that includes:

 the study of human thought,
 Behavior,
 development,
 personality,
 emotion,
 motivation, and more.
─ The following are the some of the major areas of research and application
within psychology.
Fields/types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior.
– Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
Psychologists who study abnormal psychology usually work to treat people who
have some type of mental illness.
– Here, Abnormal means, something that's outside of the norm. This specialty area is
focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders.
• E.g. What if a man cut in front of everyone in line?
• Or, what if a woman suddenly starts yelling out nonsense words?
• (Norm: the way of living in a society, group, culture, community)
 Developmental psychology is an area that looks at human growth and development
over the lifespan including cognitive abilities, morality, social functioning, identity, and
other life areas.
– Developmental psychology looks at how thinking, feeling, and behavior change
throughout a person's life.
– Study how people grow and adapt, physically and psychologically
– Development delays and serious health issues
» Cognitive Delays. ...
» Motor Delays. ...
» Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Delays. ...
» Speech Delays.
Fields/Types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Biological psychology --also called “Physiological Psychology”, is the study of the
biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics.
– Biological psychology examines the relationship between mind and body,
neural mechanisms, and the influence of heredity on behavior.
– The biological approach believes behavior to be as a consequence of our
genetics and physiology.
– It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view. All thoughts,
feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological cause.

 Clinical psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of

mental disorders.
– Clinical psychologists usually work in a hospital, mental hospital, clinic or
other health care institution, so they normally treat patients with mental
disorders.
– E.g. Julie’s experience of depression----Julie is a 32 year old graphic designer. In January
she started feeling low in moods and lack of motivation meant that she risked losing her
job and friends and then a focused course of treatment helped turn things around.
Fields/Types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Cognitive psychology is the study of human thought processes including
attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem-solving, creativity,
thinking and language acquisition.
– Cognitive psychologists is interested in how the brain processes, learns,
stores, recognizes, and utilizes information.
– Cognitive psychology involves the study of internal mental processes—all
of the things that go on inside your brain.
– They(psychologists) ask questions like:
• How do we receive information about the outside world?
• How do we store and process information?
• How do we solve problems?
• How does a breakdown in our perceptions cause errors in our thinking?
• How do errors in our thinking lead to emotional distress and negative
behaviors?
 Cognitive psychology cont’d
• For example : scenario 1
– You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores
you.(activating event)
– You think, 'Bob must be angry with me or he would have said hello.‘ (beliefs)
– You ignore your friend the next time you see him because you assume he
does not want to speak to you.(consequences)
• For example: scenario 2
– You are walking down the street. Your friend walks right past and ignores
you. (activating event)
– Beliefs: You think, 'It is unlike Bob not to say hello, I wonder what is going
on?‘ (belief)
– Consequences: You turn and call out to Bob. He apologizes for not seeing
you, but explains he is really distracted by something. You make plans to get
together later and catch up. (consequences)
Aaron T. Beck developed the cognitive therapy approach as a result of his research
and clinical expertise on depression .He observed that most depressed people
have a negative interpretation of life events. This eventually led him to assume
that how you feel is related to the way you think about your experiences.
Types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Forensic psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research
and principles in the legal and criminal justice system.
─ The word forensic is defined as "the scientific method for investigation of
crime". Forensic psychology is often described as the merger of law and
psychology.
─ Forensic psychologists often find employment in police stations, courthouses,
law firms, prisons, jails, and juvenile detention centers and may work as
consultants (self-employed).
─ Forensic psychologists provide counseling to victims of crime. These
professionals design and provide therapy services to people convicted of
crimes.
─ forensic psychologists often serve as advisors and expert witnesses.
Types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Industrial-organizational psychology is a field that uses psychological research to enhance
work performance and select employees.
 Industrial/organization psychology (I/O Psychology) is a field of psychology that applies the
fundamental scientific principles of psychology to the workplace environment to make work
more fun and more productive.
– Focused on the study of working environment---How workplace relationships affect lives
on the job and beyond
 Applying research to issues facing employees, teams, and organizations.
 Examining employee well-being and attitudes, employer-to-employee relationships and
overall workplace behaviour.
• Think about the jobs that you have held. What were the things that made you love
going to work each day? What things at the workplace made you want to call in sick?
• How are decisions made?
• How effective is communication?
• How do team members interact and collaborate?
– These are the types of things that I/O psychologists are interested in finding out.
• Industrial psychology can help; it examines our identity and behavior in the work
environment by asking key questions (Riggio, 2017):
 How can we redesign a job to make it more efficient and engaging?
 What makes some roles so stressful?
 What makes someone a good manager?
Types of Psychology (cont’d)
 Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the
study of animal behavior.
─ Comparative psychology is the study of animals in order to find out about
humans.
─ The underlying assumption is that to some degree the laws of behavior
are the same for all species and that therefore knowledge gained by
studying rats, dogs, cats and other animals can be generalised to humans.
 Personality psychology focuses on understanding how personality
develops as well as the patterns of thoughts, behaviors, and
characteristics that make each individual unique.
– Psychologists are not just interested in understanding normal human
personality, but in recognizing potential personality disturbances that
might lead to distress or difficulty with school, work, relationships,
and other key life areas.
– By being able to identify such problems, psychologists are better able
to help people develop skills to better cope and manage the
symptoms of personality disorders.
 Social Psychology --studies how people act, think, and feel in the context of
society(other people around). That is, how people's behaviors, thoughts, and
feelings change because of other people.
o It focuses on group behavior, social influences on individual behavior, attitudes,
prejudice(Biasness: a tendency to believe that some people, ideas, etc., are
better than others that usually results in treating some people unfairly),
conformity (behaviour in accordance with socially accepted conventions.),
aggression(any behavior or act aimed at harming a person or damaging physical
property), and related topics.
• Example:
• Think for a moment about how you act when you're alone. Does your behavior change when
you're around your friends?
• What about when your parents are in the room?
• How does your behavior change when your professor or boss is observing you?
• Think back to the example above.
• Your behavior probably changes depending on who is in the room with you.
• But even when you're in a room alone, your thoughts, feelings, and even behaviors are
influenced by other people: the thought of someone you don't like could make you feel angry;
the fact that you wash your hands before handling food comes from lessons taught to you by
your grandmother; that thing that your crush said this afternoon could replay in your mind as
you try to analyze it. (even absence of someone or just in your imagination affects your
behaviour, your feelings).
• In all of these cases, society has an impact on you.
Difference between Psychologist & Psychiatrist
 Psychologists are not at all
doctors; they are specially
trained people who deal with
the psychological problems and
not the medical problems.
 Psychiatrists, on the other
hand, are doctors who have a
professional degree in medicine
as well as training in treating
those suffering from
psychiatric/ psychological
problems.
 Not psychologist, but
psychiatrists are the ones who
prescribe medicine to the
mentally ill patients, as they
have a professional degree in
medicine that authorizes them
to prescribe medication