Raster Analysis and Terrain

Analysis
Chapter 10 Part 2 & 11
Raster Analysis

Lecture 11 1
Scope: Neighborhood operations

Lecture 11 2
Neighborhood
Operations

Moving
Windows
(Windows can be any size;
often odd to provide a center)

Lecture 11 3
Kernels vs. Moving Window

Lecture 11 4
Neighborhood Operations:
Separate edge kernals can be used

5
Neighborhood
Operations

6
Lecture 11
Example:Identifying
spatial differences in
a raster layer

7
Raster Analysis

Moving windows and kernals can be used with a mean

kernal to reduce the difference between a cell and
surrounding cells. (done by average across a group of cells)

Raster data may also contain “noise”; values that are large
or small relative to their spatial context.
(Noise often requiring correction or smooth(ing))

Know as “high-pass” filters

The identified spikes or pits can then be corrected or

removed by editing
Lecture 11 8
 Zonal Functions

7  4  2  1  3  1  1  4  3  2  2 30
  2.7 9
11 11
Scope: Global operation

Lecture 11 10
 ArcMap’s Raster Calculator

Raster Calculator tool dialog box example

From ArcGIS Help Files Lecture 11 11
Cost Surface

The minimum cost of reaching cells in a layer from

one or more sources cells

“travel costs”
Time to school; hospital;
Chance of noxious foreign weed spreading out from an introduction point

•Units can be money, time, etc.

•Distance measure is combined with a fixed cost per unit

distance to calculate travel cost

•If multiple source cells, the lowest cost is typically placed in

the output cell Lecture 11 12
Lecture 11 13
Friction Surface (version of a Cost Surface)

The cell values of a friction surface represent the cost per unit
travel distance for crossing each cell – varies from cell to cell
Used to represent areas with variable travel cost.

Notes:
•Barriers can be added.
•Multiple paths are often not allowed
•Cost and Friction Surfaces are always related to a source
cell(s); “from something”
•The center of a cell is always used the distance calculations
Lecture 11 14
 Friction Surface

20 2  10 2  500  22.4
22.4 Lecture 11 15
 5.6
4
 Chapter 10 Assignment
• Read Ch. 10
• Problems: 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16,19, 22, 23

Lecture 11 16
Terrain Analysis

Lecture 11 17
 Digital Elevation Models (DEM)/Terrain
Analysis
Terrain determines the natural availability and
location of surface water, and hence soil moisture
and drainage.

Water quality through control of sediment

entrainment and transport, slope steepness and
direction defines flood zones, watershed boundaries
and hydrologic networks.

Terrain also strongly influences location and nature

of transportation networks or the cost and methods of
house and road construction.
Lecture 11 18
Lecture 11 19
Digital Elevation Models
Terrain Analysis
Slope and Aspect

•Used for: hydrology, conservation, site planning, other

infrastructure development.

•Watershed boundaries, flowpaths and direction, erosion

modeling, and viewshed determination all use slope and/or
aspect data as input.

•Slope is defined as the change is elevation (a rise) with a

change in horizontal position (a run).

•Slope is often reported in degrees (0° is flat, 90° is vertical) 20

Lecture 11
Slope (continued)

21
Slope (continued)
Measured in the steepest
direction of elevation
change

Often does not fall parallel

to the raster rows or
columns

Which cells to use?

Several different methods:

•Four nearest cells

•3rd Order Finite
Difference
Lecture 11 22
Slope (continued)
Elevation is Z
•Using a 3 by 3 (or 5 by 5) moving window
•Each cell is assigned a subscript and the
elevation value at that location is referred to by
a subscripted Z value

The most common formula:

Lecture 11 23
Slope (continued)

for Zo
ΔZ/Δx = (49 – 40)/20 = 0.45

ΔZ/Δy = (45 – 48)/20 = -0.15

Lecture 11 24
Slope (continued)
Generalized formula for
ΔZ/Δx and ΔZ/Δy

for Zo
ΔZ/Δx
ΔZ/Δx == (Z
(495 –– Z40)/20
4)2* = 0.45
ΔZ/Δy = (Z2 – Z7)2*
ΔZ/Δy = (45 – 48)/20 = -0.15
* = times cell width

Using the four nearest cells

•Slope calculation base on cells

adjacent to the center cell
•The distance is from cell
center to cell center
Lecture 11 25
Slope (continued) Multiply (kernal, cell by cell)
Add (results)
Divide by #cells x cell width
Use slope formula

Kernal for ΔZ/Δx Kernal for ΔZ/Δy

ΔZ/Δx = (49 – 40)/20 = 0.45 ΔZ/Δy = (45 – 48)/20 = -0.15

Lecture 11 26
 Multiply (kernal, cell by cell)
Add (results)
Divide by #cells x cell width
Use slope formula

Lecture 11 27
 Slope in ArcGIS 10

From ArcGIS 10 Help

Lecture 11 28
Aspect

Lecture 11 29
Aspect
The orientation (in compass angles) of a slope
Calculation:
Aspect = tan-1[ -(ΔZ/Δy)/(ΔZ/Δx)]

As with slope, estimated aspect varies with the

methods used to determine ΔZ/Δx and ΔZ/Δy

Aspect calculations also use the four nearest cell or

the 3rd-order finite difference methods

Lecture 11 30
 Aspect in ArcGIS 10

From ArcGIS 10 Help Lecture 11 31

Curvature

Lecture 11 32
Viewshed
The viewshed for a point is the collection
of areas visible from that point.

Views from any non-flat location are blocked by

terrain.

Elevations will hide a point if they are higher than the

viewing point, or higher than the line of site between
the viewing point and target point

Lecture 11 33
Lecture 11 34
Lecture 11 35
 Shaded Relief Surfaces

Lecture 11 36
 Flow Direction

From ArcGIS 10 Desktop Help Lecture 11 37

Raster Analysis

High pass filters

Return:
•Small values when smoothly changing
values.
•Large positive values when centered on a
spike
•Large negative values when centered on a
pit

Lecture 11 38
 High Pass Filter
• Raster data may also contain “noise”; values
that are large or small relative to their spatial
context.
• A mean kernal is used to reduce the difference
between a cell and surrounding cells. (done by
average across a group of cells)
• The identified spikes or pits can then be
corrected or removed by editing

Lecture 11 39
35.7 40
41
Watershed

•An area that contributes flow to a point on the landscape

Water falling anywhere in the upstream area of a watershed will pass
through that point.

•Many be small or large

•Identified from a flow direction surface

Drainage network
•A set of cells through which surface water flows

•Based on the flow direction surface

Lecture 11 42
Lecture 11 43
 Routing and Allocation
•Routing
–Finding the shortest path between any nodes in a network
–Optimal path
• Each link in the net can also be assigned an impedance value
• Using an accumulated distance and the impedance factor
–Most efficient route can be found, rather than just the shortest
–Nodes can also be coded with stops and barriers
• Preventing movement and forcing traffic along another path
–Although routing can be done in raster, it is much easier if
performed in a vector system

44
 Routing and Allocation
•Allocation
–Process used to define the areal extent of services
areas
–Service areas are defined around a site
• Region is formed that includes a defined area
–Location/allocation model (optimizes network
efficiency)
• Technique for the evaluation of multiple facility locations
–Determining the configuration of facilities (location)
–Assigning demand for the facilities (allocation)

Lecture 11 45
 Assignments for Chapter 11
• Read chapter 11.
• Problems: 3, 4, 6, 8, 22

Lecture 11 46