MOTIVATION

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INTRODUCTION
Motivation is the result of the interaction of
the individual and the situation.
Individuals differ in their basic motivational
drive.
The level of motivation varies both
between individuals and within individuals
at different times.
“Motivation is a process that starts with a
physiological or psychological deficiency
or need that activates a behaviour or a
drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.”
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 Definition
• The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
• Three key elements:
– Intensity – how hard a person tries
– Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
– Persistence – how long a person can maintain
effort

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What Is Motivation?
The individual internal process that
energizes, directs, and sustains behavior;
the personal “force” that causes us to
behave in a particular way
Morale
An employee’s feelings about his or her
job and superiors and about the firm
itself
High morale results from the satisfaction
of needs or as a result of the job and
leads to dedication and loyalty
Low morale leads to shoddy work,
absenteeism, and high turnover rates
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Work Motivation
Theories of Work Motivation
Internal (Content) Theories
Identify factors within an individual that energize,
direct, sustain, and stop behavior.

External (Process) Theories

Describe how personal and situational
(environmental) factors interact and influence each
other to produce certain kinds of behavior

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Theories of Motivation
Content Theories Process Theories
Identify internal factors Identify the process
influencing motivation by which internal
Maslow’s Need factors and
Hierarchy cognitions influence
motivation
Alderfer’s ERG
Adam’s Equity
McClelland’s Theory of
Needs Vroom’s Expectancy
Herzberg’s Motivator- Porter and Lawler
Goal Setting Theory
Hygiene

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 Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they
do form the basis for contemporary theories
and are still used by practicing managers.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

– Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland’s Theory of Needs

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
– A sequence of human needs (personal
requirements) in the order of their importance
• Physiological needs—survival
• Safety needs—physical and emotional safety
• Social needs—love and affection and a sense of belonging
• Esteem needs—respect, recognition, and a sense of our
own accomplishment and worth
• Self-actualization needs—to grow and develop and
become all that we are capable of being

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Characteristics of a Self-Actualized Person

efficient and accurate in perceiving reality

are accepting of themselves, of other people and of nature
are spontaneous in thought and emotion, rather than artificial
are problem-centered - are concerned with the eternal philosophical questions of
humankind
are independent and autonomous
have a continued “freshness of appreciation” of ordinary events
often experience “oceanic feelings” that is a sense of oneness with nature
identify with all of humanity and are democratic and respectful of others
form very deep ties but only with a few people
appreciate for its own sake the process of doing things
have a philosophical, thoughtful, non-hostile sense of humor
have a childlike and fresh creativity and inventiveness
maintain an inner detachment from the culture in which they live
may appear temperamental or ruthless as they are strong and independent people guided
by their own inner visions

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Three groups of core needs:
– Existence: the basic physiological needs and
protection from physical danger. (Maslow:
physiological and safety)
– Relatedness: social and affiliation needs and the need
for respect and positive regards from others.
(Maslow: social and status)
– Growth: need to develop and realise one’s potential.
(Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
• Removed the hierarchical assumption
– Can be motivated by all three at once
• Popular, but not accurate, theory

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Two Key Components of ERG Theory; Satisfaction—
Progression and Frustration-Regrssion
 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and

Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

• No empirical evidence to support this theory.

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Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate and
distinct dimensions
Motivation factors
Job factors that increase motivation but whose
absence does not necessarily result in dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors
Job factors that reduce dissatisfaction when present to
an acceptable degree but that do not necessarily result
in higher levels of motivation.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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McClelland’s Learned Needs
Need for Achievement
a need to accomplish goals, excel, and strive
continually to do things better.
Need for Affiliation (nAff) desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships
Need for Power (nPow)
the need to influence and lead others and be
in control of one’s environment

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 Performance Predictions for High nAch
• People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of
success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a
focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high
nAch
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
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CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

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 Contemporary Theories of Motivation

• Goal-Setting Theory

• Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social
Learning Theory

• Equity Theory

• Expectancy Theory

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 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
• Basic Premise:
– That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead
to higher performance
• Difficult Goals:
– Focus and direct attention
– Energize the person to work harder
– Difficulty increases persistence
– Force people to be more effective and efficient
• Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
– Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
– Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
– Culture

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Goal Setting Theory
Function of Goals
basis of motivation
direct behavior
For goals to be effective
– individuals must be aware of goals
– must accept the goals
Factors that influence effectiveness of goal setting
– goals must be specific
– goals should be difficult but attainable

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Guidelines for SMART Goals

Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
Give feedback regularly!
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Locke’s Model of Goal Setting
Directing
one’s attention

Regulating
one’s effort
Goals
motivate the Task
individual performance
by... Increasing
one’s persistence

Encouraging the
development of goal-
attainment strategies
or action plans

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 Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
– Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.
Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

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 Increasing Self-Efficacy
• Enactive mastery
– Most important source of efficacy
– Gaining relevant experience with task or job
– “Practice makes perfect”
• Vicarious modeling
– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to
him- or herself
• Verbal persuasion
– Motivation through verbal conviction
• Arousal
– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

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 Adams’ Equity Theory
• Employees compare their ratios of
outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there
is no tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
• Under rewarded states cause anger
• Over rewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their
situation into equity

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 Equity Theory: A Summary and Example

INEQUITABLE
INEQUITABLERELATIONSHIP
RELATIONSHIP
Andy is Bill is
overpaid underpaid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Bill’s outcomes
Andy’s outcomes ($25,000/year)
($30,000/year) Bill’s inputs
Andy’s inputs (40 hours/week)
(40 hour/week)

Andy feels guilty Bill feels angry

EQUITABLE
EQUITABLERELATIONSHIP
RELATIONSHIP
Andy is equitably paid Bill is equitably paid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Andy’s outcomes Bill’s outcomes
($30,000/year) ($30,000/year)
Andy’s inputs Andy feels Bill feels Bill’s inputs
(40 hour/week) satisfied satisfied (40 hours/week)
Key Factors in Equity Assessment

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 Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”

• Can be four different situations:

Self-Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same
organization
Self-Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organization
Other-Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
Other-Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization

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 Reactions to Inequity
• Employee behaviors to create equity:
– Change inputs (slack off)
– Change outcomes (increase output)
– Distort/change perceptions of self
– Distort/change perceptions of others
– Choose a different referent person
– Leave the field (quit the job)
• Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
– Paid by time:
• Overrewarded employees produce more
• Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
– Paid by quality:
• Overrewarded employees give higher quality
• Underrewarded employees make more of low quality

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 Expectancy Theory – Victor Vroom
– Motivation depends on how much we want something and
on how likely we think we are to get it
– Implications are that managers must recognize that
• Employees work for a variety of reasons
• The reasons, or expected outcomes, may change over time
• It is necessary to show employees how they can attain the outcomes
they desire

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Expectancy Theory

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The Expectancy Theory of
Motivation

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Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)

Five Components
Job outcomes (e.g., pay, promotions)
Valence - attractiveness of the outcomes to
employees
Instrumentality - strength of belief that
performance results in outcome attainment
Expectancy - strength of belief that effort will
result in successful performance
Force - amount of pressure within the person
to be motivated
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 Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
• Practical use of the theory by managers:
– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet
organizational goals.
– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
– Make sure the rewards are large enough.
– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

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Porter and Lawler Model Expectancy Theory

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 Cognitive evaluation theory
- R. de Charms
- Introduction of Extrinsic Rewards
viz., salary, benefits and perks .

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 Reinforcement theory
• Positive: high salary, better benefits, praise,
recognition and status.
• Negative: strict supervision, control, harassment
and threatening – gave rise to mistakes
• Punishment: strict control and supervision is
needed
• Extinction –occurs when the withdrawal of a
pleasant or desirable event results in behaviour
becoming less likely to occur in the future.
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