Pulse Code Modulation and Digital Modulation

A. NAGESWARRAO– 21EEB0B03
 Analog to Digital Conversion

- A digital signal is superior to an analog signal.

- Digital is less prone to noise and distortion.

- We can’t use analog signals for long distance

(lose their strength, which means amplifiers are needed to amplify
signal. However the amplifier creates distortion in the signal and
adds some noise).

- The tendency today is to change an analog signal (such as

audio ,voice and music) to digital data.

- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a technique to convert

analog data to digital signal.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

The idea of digitizing analog signal started with telephone companies, to provide long
distance services; They digitized the analog signal at the sender; The signal is converted
back to analog at the receiver.

- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

1- Sampling (PAM).
2- Quantization.
3- Binary encoding.
4- Line or block coding.

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 1. Sampling (PAM)

• The first step in PCM is sampling.

• The analog signal is sampled at equal interval, every Ts s (sample
interval)
• The inverse of sampling interval is sampling rate or sampling
frequency.
fs= 1/Ts
• Sampling rate: number of samples per second.
1. Sampling (PAM)
 2. Quantized PAM Signal

• The result of PAM is a series of pulses with amplitude values

between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal
with real values.
• Quantization: is a method of assigning integer values in a specific
range to sampled instances.

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 3. Binary Encoding
- Each quantized samples is translated into equivalent binary
codes .

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 4. Line Encoding

- The binary digits are then transformed to a digital signal using

one of the line encoding.

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Components of PCM Encoder
 PCM Block

The basic elements of a PCM system

 Pulse Code Modulation Advantages

Analog signal can be transmitted over a high speed

digital communication system.

Probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of

appropriate coding methods.

PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized

video special effects, digital video, voice mail.

PCM is also used in Radio control units as transmitter and also

receiver for remote controlled cars, boats, planes.

The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal

signal.
 Pulse Code Demodulation

Pulse Code Demodulation: will be doing the same

modulation process in reverse.
Demodulation starts with decoding process
During transmission the PCM signal will effected by the noise
interference.
PCM Decoder:
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

• Baseband operation
• Transforming continuous time analog signals into discrete time
analog pulses
• Information carried in amplitude of pulses.
• First step in the analog to digital conversion (A/D)
• Pre-cursor to Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Sometimes, PAM signals are used directly for transmission
without making it into PCM
• Two types of PAM
• Gating
• Sample and hold
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Gated signal ws(t) of given original signal bandlimite d signal w(t) (to B hertz)

 t  kTs  1
ws (t )  w(t ) s (t ) where s (t )     , and f s   2 B
    Ts
Demodulation of PAM signal

Oscillator multiplies cos(nwst) to the received PAM signal.

This operation is equivalent to bringing down the frequency of the
received signal by nws.
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Let Sample - and - Hold (S/H) signal of given bandlimite d signal w(t) (to B hertz) be ws(t)  Ws(f).
S/H PAM is also called the flot top PAM. S/H PAM is created by instantane ously sampling
ws(t) and hold the sampled value for a certain duration before the next sample is taken.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a special form of A/D conversion. It consists
of sampling, quantizing, and encoding steps. It is widely popular because:
- Used for long time in telephone systems
- Inexpensive electronics exists
- Errors can be corrected during long haul transmission
- Can use time division multiplexing PCM
signal
 Effects of Noise
Types of Noise
• Quantizing noise (during A/D conversion)
• Environment noise (e.g., EM interference)
• Filtering noise (low pass filtering at decoder)

Types of Quantization Noise

• Overload noise (input too large)
• Random noise (input too small)
• Granular noise (non uniform error jump)
• Hunting noise (too long of quite time)

 Special quantizers are used (µ-law, A-law quantizers)

 Quantization

Quantization is a non linear transformation which maps elements from

a continuous set to a finite set. It is also the second step required by
A/D conversion.

Analog Signal Sample Quantize Digital Signal

- Continuous time - Discrete time
- Continuous value - Discrete time - Discrete value
- Continuous value
 Uniform Quantization

output w2(t)
V

-V V
input w1(t)

-V
Region of operation
For M=2n levels, step size :
 = 2V /2n = V(2-n+1)
Quantization Error, e

output w2(t)
V

-V V
input w1(t)

-V

Error, e
/2
-/2 input w1(t)
 Quantization Error, e


Error is symmetric 
around zero. 0

Average error power :

   3 

  
1
V 2
2 2 
2   2   2 V  2  n 12
V 2 2n
 e ( s )ds   x dx     
2
 2
2V V 0  3 12 12 3
 
 
Suppose the input signal is a triangula r wave between  V and  V .
V2
Then the average signal power is .
3
S
    22 n
 N out
 Nonuniform Quantizer

Used to reduce quantization error and increase the

dynamic range when input signal is not uniformly
distributed over its allowed range of values.

allowed
values input

values
for most time
of time
 Nonuniform Quantizer
“Compressing-and-expanding” is called “companding.”

Nonuniform quantizer

Discrete Uniform digital

samples Compressor Quantizer signals

••••
Channel
••••

received Decoder Expander output

digital
signals
Compression Techniques
A - law compressor
w1 (t )  1, A0
 A w1 (t ) 1
 0  w1 (t ) 
 1  ln A A
w2 (t )  
1  ln A w1 (t )  1
  w1 (t )  1
 1  ln A A

 - law compressor
(very popular internatio nally)

w1 (t )  1
ln 1   w1 (t ) 
w2 (t ) 
ln 1   
In the U.S.,   255 is used.
 Line Code
• On the channel, we might want to send binary
numbers directly.
• The resulting bit patterns on the channel might
create a static voltage, which is not desired.
• Use line code to eliminate the average static
voltage.
- Save power
- Save bandwidth (possibly)

1 1 1 1 1
5 volt

average
static voltage
0 volt
0 0 0 0 0 0
 Types of Line Code
• Unipolar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = 0 volt
• Polar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = -A volt
• Bi polar signaling: 1 = +A or –A, 0 = 0 volt
(Also called the alternate mark inversion – AMI)
• Manchester signaling:
1 = +A (half duration) followed by –A (half
duration)
0 = -A (half duration) followed by +A (half
duration)

Additional combinations can be made along with RZ

(return to zero) and NRZ (non return to zero).
Types of Line Code
 Desired Properties of Line Code
• Self synchronization
• Low probability of bit error
• Spectral efficiency
• Low transmission speed
• Error detection capability
• Transparency
Binary-to-Multilevel Conversion
 Inter symbol Interference
• No channel has infinite bandwidth
• Most transmission schemes require higher bandwidth than available in the
channel.
- Square wave requires infinite bandwidth.
- Synch function is not possible due to causality violation.
- Modified synch function to satisfy the causality requires higher
bandwidth.
• Each symbol may be smeared into adjacent time slots.
• Inter symbol Interference (ISI) is the spreading of symbol pulses from
one slot into adjacent slots.
 Delta Modulation
This scheme sends only the difference between pulses, if the pulse at time tn+1 is higher in
amplitude value than the pulse at time tn, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate the
positive value.
If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative value, a “0” is used.
This scheme works well for small changes in signal values between samples.
If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in large errors.

Definition: Delta Modulation is a technique which provides a staircase approximation to an over-

sampled version of the message signal (analog input).
Sampling is at a rate higher than the Nyquist rate – aims at increasing the correlation between
adjacent samples; simplifies quantizing of the encoded signal
 Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation Components

Delta Demodulation Components

Delta PCM (DPCM)

Instead of using one bit to indicate positive and

negative differences, we can use more bits ->
quantization of the difference.

Each bit code is used to represent the value of the

difference.
The more bits the more levels -> the higher the
accuracy.
One Implementation of DPCM

Quantization error is accumulated.

Another Implementation of DPCM
Quantization error is not accumulated.
 Delta Modulation (DM)

- Special type of DPCM with M = 2.

Inexpensive and simple to implement.
DM Waveform
 Delta Modulation (DM)

Bit rate = sampling rate n

Reconstructed signal z (nTs )   ywhere
(iTs ) y(iTs) = +1 or -1
i 1
and  is the step size.
Types of noise
* Quantization noise: step size  takes place of smallest
quantization level.
* Granular noise: z(nTs) is always different from z((n-1)Ts).
* Slope overload noise: maximum slope of output signal is  / Ts.

 too small: slope overload noise

too large: quantization noise and granular noise

There is an optimum value for  in terms of signal bandwidth,

signal power, and sampling frequency.

ADM Block Diagram.
ADM .

Adaptive Delta Modulation, where the step size is made to vary with the input
Signal.

More efficient than PCM by removing the redundancies in the speech signal.
Adjacent samples of a speech waveform are highly
correlated.
This means that the variance of the difference between adjacent speech
amplitudes is much smaller than the variance of the speech signal itself.
 Differences between Delta Modulation and Adaptive Delta Modulation

The differences between adaptive delta modulation and delta modulation are
listed below-
•In Delta Modulation step size is fixed for the whole signal. Whereas in Adaptive
delta modulation, the step size varies depending upon the input signal.
•The slope overload and granular noise errors which are present in delta
modulation are not seen in this modulation.
•The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is wider than delta modulation.
•This modulation utilizes bandwidth more effectively than delta modulation.
Advantages

•Adaptive delta modulation decreases slope error present in delta modulation.

•During demodulation, it uses a low pass filter which removes the quantized
noise.

•The slope overload error and granular error present in delta modulation are
solved using this modulation. Because of this, the signal to noise ratio of this
modulation is better than delta modulation.

•In the presence of bit errors, this modulation provides robust performance. This
reduces the need for error detection and correction circuits in radio design.

•The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is large as the variable step
size covers large range of values.
Applications

Some of the applications of this modulation method are listed below-

•This modulation is used for a system which requires improved wireless voice quality as well
as speed transfer of bits.
•In television signal transmission this modulation process is used.
•This modulation method is used in voice coding.
•This modulation is also used as a standard by NASA for all communications between mission
control and spacecraft.
•Motorola’s SECURENET line of digital radio products uses 12kbits/sec Adaptive Delta
Modulation.
•To provide voice detection quality audio at deployed areas, military uses 16 to 32 kbit/sec
modulation system in TRI-TAC digital telephones.
•US army forces use 16kbit/sec rates to conserve bandwidth over tactical links.
•For improved voice quality US Air Forces uses 32kbits/sec rates.
•In Bluetooth-services to encode voice signals, this modulation is used with 32bits/sec rates.
•HC55516 decoder is used in various arcade games such as sinistar and smash tv and pinball
machines such as gorgor or space shuttle, to play pre-recorded sounds.
•Adaptive delta modulation is also known as continuously variable slope delta modulation.
 Speech Coding
- Waveform coders: output approximates original voice
signal.
* PCM, DPCM, DM, CVSD (24 – 64 k bits/s)

- Vocoder: parameterize voice signals based on speech

models
* CELP, VSELP (2 -16 k bits/s)
 Time Division Multiplexing
• Time interleaving of samples from different sources to be transmitted over a
single communication channel.
 Frame Synchronization
• Framing is done to delimit the boundaries of data units. (e.g., 24 PCM samples
collected from 24 difference sources, each corresponding to a voice sample)
• The receiver sees a continuous stream of symbols (for binary signals, 1’s and 0’s).
• How does the receiver know, for example, where the different PCM samples are?
 Certain unique string of bits is used to indicate the boundaries of frames.
• The channel data may contain the bit patterns that happen to be identical to the
framing bit string.
 Certain bit stuffing and de-stuffing methods are necessary to avoid such
situations.
• Probability of any arbitrary bit string matching a K bit framing string:
K
1
Pf     2  K
2
 CVSDM

• Continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSD or CVSDM) is a voice coding

method. It is a delta modulation with variable step size (i.e., special case of
adaptive delta modulation), first proposed by Greefkes and Riemens in 1970.

• CVSD encodes at 1 bit per sample, so that audio sampled at 16 kHz is encoded at
16 kbit/s.The encoder maintains a reference sample and a step size.

• Each input sample is compared to the reference sample. If the input sample is larger, the
encoder emits a 1 bit and adds the step size to the reference sample.

• If the input sample is smaller, the encoder emits a 0 bit and subtracts the step size from the
reference sample.

• The encoder also keeps the previous N bits of output (N = 3 or N = 4 are very common) to
determine adjustments to the step size; if the previous N bits are all 1s or 0s, the step size is
increased. Otherwise, the step size is decreased (usually in an exponential manner, with
being in the range of 5 ms).

• The step size is adjusted for every input sample processed.

 Digital Modulation

Digital To Analog Conversion

• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.

1. Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion

2. Amplitude Shift Keying
3. Frequency Shift Keying
4. Phase Shift Keying
5. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Digital Modulation
Digital To Analog Conversion
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics
of an analog signal (carrier signal) based on the information in digital data.

Digital /Analog converter Analog /Digital converter

 Digital Modulation
Why we need Digital Modulation ?

- Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted

over a medium that only allows analog transmission.
- Modems in wired networks.
- Wireless must use analogue sine waves.
Digital Modulation
Types of Digital To Analog Conversion
Digital Modulation
Modulation and Demodulation

Radio
Carrier Carrier
Channel

Baseband Synchronization/
Modulation Detection/ Decision

Data in Data out

Digital Modulation

Modulation
• Modulation :
process (or result of the process) of translation the baseband
message signal to bandpass (modulated carrier) signal at
frequencies that are very high compared to the baseband
frequencies.
• Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband
message back the modulated carrier.
• An information-bearing signal is non- deterministic, i.e. it
changes in an unpredictable manner.
Digital Modulation

Why Carrier ?
• Effective radiation of EM waves requires antenna
dimensions comparable with the wavelength:
– Antenna for 3 kHz would be ~100 km long
– Antenna for 3 GHz carrier is 10 cm long
• Sharing the access to the telecommunication channel
resources
Digital Modulation

• Bit rate, N, is the number of bits per second (bps).

• Baud rate is the number of signal
• elements per second (bauds).
• In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or baud rate is less than or
equal to the bit rate.
S=Nx1/r bauds
• Where r is the number of data bits per signal element.

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate.

Solution:
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find the value of N from
 Digital Modulation

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of
1000 baud. How many data elements are carried by each signal
element? How many signal elements do we need?

Solution:

In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown. We find first
the value of r and then the value of L.
 Modulation Process

•f  f a1 , a2 , a3 ,...an , t  (= carrier)

• a1 , a2 , a3 ,...an (= modulation parameters)
• t (= time)
• Modulation implies varying one or more characteristics (modulation
parameters a1, a2, … an) of a carrier f in accordance with the information-
bearing (modulating) baseband signal.
• Sinusoidal waves, pulse train, square wave, etc. can be used as carriers
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
ASK
modulated
signal
Acos(t) Acos(t)

• Pulse shaping can be employed to remove spectral spreading

• ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected by
noise, fading, and interference
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• In ASK the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to

represent binary 1 or 0.
• Carrier signal is a high frequency signal that acts as a basis for the
information signal.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes.
• The peak amplitude of the signal during each bit duration is constant,
and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1).

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Binary ASK (BASK) or On Off Keying (OOK)

- Although we can have several levels of signal elements, each with a

different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels.
This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying.
- In ON OFF Keying: bit 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier
and bit 1 is represented by the presence of a carrier .
Pros and Cons

- Pros:
ASK transmitter and receiver are simple to design.
ASK needs less bandwidth than FSK.

- Cons:
ASK transmission can be easily corrupted by noise.

- Application:
Early telephone modem (AFSK).
ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BFSK
modulated
signal
f1

f0

f0
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

• The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.

• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant while the frequency
changes.
• The frequency of the signal during each bit duration is constant, and its
value depends on the bit (0 or 1).
ASK and FSK

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Very simple. • Needs larger bandwidth.

• Low bandwidth requirements. • More error resilience than AM.

• Very susceptible to interference

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BPSK
modulated
signal
s1 s0 s0 s1
where s0 =-Acos(ct) and s1 =Acos(ct)
• Major drawback – rapid amplitude change between symbols due to phase discontinuity, which
requires infinite bandwidth. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) demonstrates better performance
than ASK and BFSK
• BPSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases and amplitudes as different
states
Phase Shift Keying

• In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to

represent two or more different signal elements (Both peak
amplitude and frequency remain constant).
• In binary PSK, we have only two signal elements: one with a
phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.

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Bandwidth of Binary PSK

• PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.

• PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier signals.
• The implementation of BPSK :
• the signal element with phase 180° can be seen as the complement of the
signal element with phase 0°.
Digital Modulation Summary

Amplitude Shift Keying Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
(ASK)

• Very simple. • Needs larger bandwidth. • More complex.

• Low bandwidth requirements • More error resilience than AM. • Robust against interference.

• Very susceptible to
interference
Digital Modulation Summary