2ND YEAR 1ST SEMESTER

FUNDAMENTAL OF MECHANICS
Subject code: 521105
 MECHANICS
 Mechanics is the branch of physics dealing with the study of motion
when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects
of the bodies on their environment.
 Mechanics can be referred as physical science that deals with state of
rest or motion of bodies under the action of force.
 It is the science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
 Mechanics can be divided into 2 types
Statics: describes a physical system when it is not in motion.
Dynamics: deals with when the system is in motion.

 Dynamics can further divided into 2 parts such as

Kinetics: explains how a body responds when a force or torque is applied to
it.
Kinematics: describes motion using equations of motion.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
MECHANICS
The basic concepts used in mechanics are rigid body, space, time, mass, particle and
force.
 Space - associated with the motion or the position of a point p given in terms of
three coordinates measured from a reference point or origin.
 Time - definition of an event requires specification of the time and position at which
it occurred.
 Mass – the amount of matter in a body
 Rigid body – the relative movement between its parts are negligible.
 Particle – a body of negligible dimension.
 Force – the action of one body on another whether it’s a push or a pull force.
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF
MECHANICS
 Newton’s 1st law
 Newton’s 2nd law
 Newton’s 3rd law
 Newton’s law of gravitation
 Law of transmissibility of forces
 Parallelogram law of forces.
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
 States that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external agency
acting on it.
 This leads to the definition of force as the external agency which
changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform linear motion
of the body.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
 It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional, to the impressed force and it takes
place in the direction of the force acting on it. Thus
according to this law
 F = ma
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
 Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces
to one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 Examples of action and reaction involving aerodynamics:
The motion of lift from an airfoil, the air is deflected downward by the airfoil’s
action, and in reaction, the wing is pushed upward.
The motion of a spinning ball, the air is deflected to one side, and the ball reacts by
moving in the opposite
The motion of a jet engine produces thrust and hot exhaust gases flow out the back
of the engine, and a thrusting force is produced in the opposite direction.
 NEWTON’S LAW OF
GRAVITATION
 Law of gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
 F1 = f2 =
 COORDINATE SYSTEM
Coordinate system used to describe the position of a point in space and
consists of
 An origin as the reference point
 A set of coordinate axes with scales and labels.
 Choice of unit vectors at each point in space.
 Choice of positive direction for each axis.
 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF
FORCES.
 The law of parallelogram of two forces states that if two vectors
acting on a particle at the same time are represented in magnitude and
direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from point
their resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram
drawn from the same point.
 TRIANGLE LAW
 Triangle law used to determine the resultant of two coplanar forces
acting at a point.
 If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram or triangle, then
their resultant r is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of both, which passes through that common point.
 THE SINE AND COSINE RULE
Sine rule states that in any triangle ABC

Cosine rule states that in any triangle abc

 CENTROIDS OF LINES, AREAS
AND VOLUMES
We know

When the density ρ of a body is uniform throughout, it will be a constant factor in both the numerators and
denominators of eqs. 5/3 and will therefore cancel. The remaining expressions define a purely geometrical
property of the body, since any reference to its mass properties has disappeared. The term centroid is used
when the calculation concerns a geometrical shape only. When speaking of an actual physical body, we use
the term center of mass. If the density is uniform throughout the body, the positions of the centroid and
center of mass are identical, whereas if the density varies, these two points will, in general, not coincide.
The calculation of centroids falls within three distinct categories, depending on whether we can model the
shape of the body involved as a line, an area, or a volume.
1. Lines: for a slender rod or wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, and density ρ, fig. 5/6, the
body approximates a line segment, and dm = ρa dl. If ρ and A are constant over the length of the
rod, the coordinates of the center of mass also become the coordinates of the centroid C of the
line segment, which, from eqs. 5/1b, may be written

In general, the centroid C will not lie on the line. If the rod
lies on a single plane, such as the x-y plane, only two
coordinates need to be calculated.
2. Areas: when a body of density ρ has a small but constant thickness t, we can
model it as a surface area A, fig. 5/7. The mass of an element becomes dm = ρt da.
Again, if ρ and t are constant over the entire area, the coordinates of the center of
mass of the body also become the coordinates of the centroid C of the surface
area, and from eqs. 5/1b the coordinates may be written

The numerators in Eqs. 5/5 are called the first moments of area. If
the surface is curved, as illustrated in Fig. 5/7 with the shell
segment, all three coordinates will be involved. The centroid C for
the curved surface will in general not lie on the surface. If the area
is a flat surface in, say, the x-y plane, only the coordinates of C in
that plane need to be calculated.
3. Volumes: for a general body of volume V and density ρ, the element has a mass dm = ρ dv.
The density ρ cancels if it is constant over the entire volume, and the coordinates of the center of
mass also become the coordinates of the centroid C of the body. From eqs. 5/3 or 5/1b they
become
 FORCE
 Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude
and a direction. The direction towards which the force is applied is known as the direction of the
force, and the application of force is the point where force is applied.
The Force has different effects, and here are some of them.
 Force can make a body that is at rest to move.
 It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
 It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
 It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and size.
 A force is a vector quantity, because its effect depends on the direction as well as on the
magnitude of the action.
 Thus forces may be combined according to the parallelogram law of vector addition.
External and internal effects
 Law of transmissibility of forces
 Principle of transmissibility states that a force acting on a rigid body at different
points along the force’s line of action will produce the same effect on the body.
 Does not change the condition of motion of the body.
Force classification
Action and Reaction
Concurrent Forces
Vector Components
A Special case of vector addition
TWO DIMENSIONAL FORCE
SYSTEMS Rectangular Components
Conventions for Describing Vector Components
Determining components of a force
Moment
Moment about a point
The cross product
Varigon’s theorem
Couple
Vector Algebra Method
Equivalent Couples
Force – Couple Systems
Resultants
Algebric Method
Principle of moments
THREE DIMENSIONAL FORCE
SYSTEMS Rectangular Components
Dot product
Angle between two vectors
 Moment and Couple
In two-dimensional analyses it is often convenient to determine a
moment magnitude by scalar multiplication using the moment-arm
rule. In three dimensions, however, the determination of the
perpendicular distance between a point or line and the line of action of
the force can be a tedious computation. A vector approach with cross-
product multiplication then becomes advantageous.
Moments in three dimensions
Evaluating the Cross Product
Moment about an Arbitrary Axis
Varignon’s Theorem in Three Dimensions
Couples in three dimensions
Resultants
TRUSS Definition
Simple Trusses
Analysis of trusses by method of joints
Space Trusses
Analysis of trusses by the method of sections
Trusses made of several simple trusses
Truss
FRAMES
Structures containing multi force members
Analysis of a frame
Frames which case to be rigid when
detached from their supports
FORCES IN BEAMS AND
CABLES Internal Forces in members
BEAMS Various types of loading and support
Shear and bending moment in a beam
Shear and bending moment diagrams
Relations among load, shear and bending moment
CABLES Cables with concentrated loads
Cables with distributed loads
Parabolic cable
Catenary
FRICTION
Friction is defined as the resistance offered by the surfaces
that are in contact when they move past each other.
Friction provides traction that is needed to walk without
slipping.
About 20 percent of the engine power of automobiles is
consumed in overcoming frictional forces in the moving
parts.
 Factors affecting friction

Friction is a force that is dependent on external factors. Following are the two
factors on which fiction depends.
1. On the nature of the two surfaces that are in contact: Friction is dependent
on the smoothness or roughness of the two surfaces that are in contact with
each other. When the surface is smooth, the friction between the two reduces
as there is not much interlocking of irregularities. While the surface is rough,
friction increases.

2. On the force that is acting on these surfaces: Friction increases when the
force is applied along with the irregularities.
 Causes of friction

Friction is caused due to the irregularities on the two surfaces in

contact. So when one object moves over the other, these irregularities
on the surface get entangled, giving rise to friction. The more the
roughness, the more irregularities and more significant will be the
friction.
 Types of friction

1. Dry Friction. Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated surfaces of two solids
are in contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction
force tangent to the surfaces of contact occurs both during the interval leading
up to impending slippage and while slippage takes place. The direction of this
friction force always opposes the motion or impending motion. This type of
friction is also called Coulomb friction. The principles of dry or Coulomb
friction were developed largely from the experiments of Coulomb in 1781 and
from the work of Morin from 1831 to 1834.
 Dry friction mechanism
Consider a solid block of mass m resting on a horizontal surface, as shown in Fig. 6/1a. We assume that the contacting
surfaces have some roughness. The experiment involves the application of a horizontal force P which continuously
increases from zero to a value suffi cient to move the block and give it an appreciable velocity. The free-body diagram
of the block for any value of P is shown in Fig. 6/1b, where the tangential friction force exerted by the plane on the
block is labeled F. This friction force acting on the body will always be in a direction to oppose motion or the tendency
toward motion of the body. There is also a normal force N which in this case equals mg, and the total force R exerted
by the supporting surface on the block is the resultant of N and F.
A magnified view of the irregularities of the mating surfaces, Fig. 6/1c, helps us to visualize the mechanical action of
friction. Support is necessarily intermittent and exists at the mating humps. The direction of each of the reactions on
the block, R1, R2, R3, etc., depends not only on the geometric profile of the irregularities but also on the extent of local
deformation at each contact point. The total normal force N is the sum of the n-components of the R’s, and the total
frictional force F is the sum of the t-components of the R’s. When the surfaces are in relative motion, the contacts are
more nearly along the tops of the humps, and the t-components of the R’s are smaller than when the surfaces are at rest
relative to one another. This observation helps to explain the well-known fact that the force P necessary to maintain
motion is generally less than that required to start the block when the irregularities are more nearly in mesh.
If we perform the experiment and record the friction force F as a function of P, we obtain the relation shown in Fig.
6/1d. When P is zero, equilibrium requires that there be no friction force. As P is increased, the friction force must be
equal and opposite to P as long as the block does not slip. During this period the block is in equilibrium, and all forces
acting on the block must satisfy the equilibrium equations. Finally, we reach a value of P which causes the block to slip
and to move in the direction of the applied force. At this same time the friction force decreases slightly and abruptly. It
then remains essentially constant for a time but then decreases still more as the velocity increases.
Static friction
Kinetic friction
Friction angles
2. Fluid Friction. Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas)
are moving at different velocities. This motion causes frictional forces between
fluid elements, and these forces depend on the relative velocity between layers.
When there is no relative velocity, there is no fluid friction. Fluid friction depends
not only on the velocity gradients within the fluid but also on the viscosity of the
fluid, which is a measure of its resistance to shearing action between fluid layers.
Fluid friction is treated in the study of fluid mechanics and will not be discussed
further in this book.
3. Internal Friction. Internal friction occurs in all solid materials which are
subjected to cyclical loading. For highly elastic materials the recovery
from deformation occurs with very little loss of energy due to internal
friction. For materials which have low limits of elasticity and which
undergo appreciable plastic deformation during loading, a considerable
amount of internal friction may accompany this deformation. The
mechanism of internal friction is associated with the action of shear
deformation, which is discussed in references on materials science.
Because this book deals primarily with the external effects of forces, we
will not discuss internal friction further.
APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION

Wedges
A wedge is one of the simplest and most useful machines. A wedge is used to
produce small adjustments in the position of a body or to apply large forces.
Wedges largely depend on friction to function. When sliding of a wedge is
impending, the resultant force on each sliding surface of the wedge will be inclined
from the normal to the surface by an amount equal to the friction angle. The
component of the resultant along the surface is the friction force, which is always
in the direction to oppose the motion of the wedge relative to the mating surfaces.
 Screws
Screws are used for fastening and for transmitting power or motion. In each case
the friction developed in the threads largely determines the action of the screw. For
transmitting power or motion the square thread is more efficient than the V-thread,
and the analysis here is confined to the square thread.
Force analysis
Conditions for unwinding
Journal Bearings
Thrust Bearings; Disk Friction
Flexible Belts
Rolling Resistance
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF
AREAS
Second moment, or moment of inertia, of an area
Determination of the moment of inertia of an area by integration
Polar Moment of Inertia
Radius of gyration of an area
Parallel-Axis Theorem
Moments of inertia of composite areas
Product of inertia
Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia
Mohr’s Circle for Moments and Products of Inertia
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF
MASSES Moment of Inertia of a Mass
Parallel-Axis Theorem
Moment of inertia of thin plates
Determination of the moment of inertia of a three dimensional body
by integration
Moments of inertia of composite bodies
Moment of inertia of a body with respect to an arbitrary axis through O.
Mass products of inertia
Ellipsoid of inertia. Principal axes of inertia
Determination of the principal axes and principal moments of inertia
of a body of arbitrary shape
RELATIVE MOTION
Uniform Rectilinear Motion
Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
Motion of several particles
 PLANAR MECHANISMS
Link
 A link is defined as a single part which can be a resistant body or a combination
of resistant bodies having inflexible connections and having a relative motion
with respect to other parts of the machine.
 A link is also known as kinematic link or element. Links should not be confused
with the parts of the mechanism. Different parts of the mechanism can be
considered as single link if there is no relative motion between them.
 Example: The frame of any machine is considered as single link as there is no
relative motion between the various parts of the frame. As shown in slider crank
mechanism shown below, the frame is considered as one link (link 1) as there is
no relative motion in frame itself. The crank here is link 2 & connecting rod is
again single link (link 3). The slider or piston is link 4 as there is no relative
motion it. In this way, many complex mechanisms can be describe by simple
configuration diagram by considering the definition of a link.
Figure: Slider crank mechanism
 Types of link
Links can be classified into Binary, Ternary, Quaternary etc. depending upon its
ends on which revolute or turning pairs can be placed.
A link which is connected to only one other link is known as singular link.
If it is connected to two other links, it is called binary link.
If it is connected to three other links, it is called ternary link.
If it is connected to four other links, then it is quaternary link.
The links can also be classified into Rigid, Flexible , Fluid according to its
nature such as
Rigid link is the link which do not deform while transmitting the motion.
Flexible link is the link which deform while transmitting the motion but
does not affect its function of transmitting motion such as belts, chains etc.
Fluid link is the link which uses the fluid pressure to transmit the motion
such as hydraulics jack, brakes and lifts.
 RIGID BODY
A rigid body is a body in which the distance between the two
points on the body remains constant or it does not deform
under the action of applied force. In actual practice no body is
perfectly rigid but we assume it to be rigid to simplify our
analysis.
 RESISITANT BODY
A Resistant body is a body which is not a rigid body but acts
like a rigid body whiles its functioning in the machine. In
actual practice, no body is the rigid body as there is always
some kind of deformation while transmitting motion or force.
So, the body should be resistant one to transmit motion or
force. Examples: The cycle chain is the resistant body as it
acts like rigid body while transmitting motion to the rear
wheel of the cycle, Belt in belt and pulley arrangement.
 KINEMATIC PAIR OR PAIR
A kinematic pair is a connection between rigid bodies, which permits relative
motion between them.
When the links are supposed to be rigid in kinematics, then, there cannot be
any change in the relative positions of any two chosen points on the selected
link.
In other words, the relative position of any two points does not change and it is
treated as one link. Due to this rigidness, many complex shaped links can be
replaced with simple schematic diagrams for the kinematic and synthesis
analysis of mechanism.
Kinematic pairs can be classified according to
a) Type of contact between elements
b) Type of relative motion
c) Nature of constraint or Type of closure
 a) Type of contact between elements
 Lower Pairs: A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as a lower
pair. The surfaces in contact of the two links are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint, etc.
Advantages:

 The lubricant traps between their enveloping

surfaces.

 Therefore results in low wear and long life

Fig. 2.3 Nut and screw (lower pair)
 Higher Pair : When a pair has a point or line joint contact between the links, it is known as a higher pair.
The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings, etc.

Fig. 2.4: ball and roller bearing (higher pair)

 b) Type of relative motion
 Sliding Pair: When two pairs have sliding motion relative to each other.
 Examples: piston and cylinder, rectangular rod in rectangular hole.

 Turning Pair : When one element revolves around another element it forms a turning pair.
 Examples: shaft in bearing, rotating crank at crank pin.

 Screw Pair : This is also known as helical pair. In this type of pair two mating elements have
threads on it or its relative motion takes place along a helical curve.
 Examples: Nut and screw pair as shown in figure 2.4, Screw jack

 Rolling Pair : When one element is free to roll over the other one.
 Examples: Ball and rolling as shown in figure 2.5, motion of wheel on flat surface

 Spherical pair : When one element move relative to the other along a spherical surface.
 Examples: Ball and socket joint
 Explanation
In slider crank mechanism (Fig.2.6), crank (link 2) rotates relative to ground (link 1) and form a
turning pair. Similarly, crank (link 2), connecting rod (link 3) and connecting rod (link 3), slider
(link 4) also form turning pairs. Slider (link 4) reciprocates relative to ground (link 1) and form a
sliding pair.

Fig.2.6 Slider crank mechanism

It should be noted here that the slider crank mechanism showed here is useful only in kinematic
analysis and synthesis of the mechanism as actual physical appearance will be different and
more complex than showed here. For designing the machine component the different approach
will be followed.
 c) Nature of Constraint or Type of closure

 Closed pair : One element is completely surrounded by the other.

 Examples: Nut and screw pair

 Open Pair : When there is some external mean has been applied to
prevent them from separation.
 Examples: cam and follower pair
 Planar vs. Spatial mechanisms
 Planar Mechanisms:
 When all the links of a mechanism have plane motion, it is
called as a planar mechanism. All the links in a planar
mechanism move in planes parallel to the reference plane.

Spatial Mechanisms:
 A mechanisms where links move in 3 dimensions.

Examples of spatial mechanisms

• A gear train system (for example) can be a
planar or spatial mechanisms depending on the
configuration of the system.
 INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE OF
ROTATION
Sometimes, a body has simultaneously a motion of rotation as well as translation,
such as wheel of a car, a sphere rolling on a ground, such motion have combined
effect of rotation and translation.
The combined motion of rotation and translation of the link may be assumed to be
a motion of pure rotation about some center I, known as the Instantaneous Centre
of rotation (also called centroid or virtual center).
As points A and B moves to A1 and B’ therefore position of centre of rotation must
lie on the intersection of the right bisectors of chords A1A and B1B.
Let the bisectors intersect at I.
We see position of the link AB goes on changing, therefore the centre about which
the motion is assumed also goes on changing.

Instantaneous centre of a moving body may be defined as that

centre which goes on changing from one instant to other.
The locus of all such instantaneous centres is known as centrode.
A line drawn through instantaneous centre of and perpendicular
to the plane of motion is instantaneous axis.
 Types of Instantaneous Centres
The instantaneous centres are of three types.
Fixed Instantaneous Centre.
Permanent Instantaneous Centre.
Neither Fixed Nor Permanent Instantaneous Centre.
The first two fixed and permanent Instantaneous Centres
are together known as primary instantaneous centres.
The third type is known as secondary instantaneous
centres.

Consider a four bar mechanism ABCD as shown and the

number of instantaneous centres are given by formula
Location of instantaneous centre
Arnhold Kennedy’s Theorem
Method of Locating Instantaneous Centre
 EULER’S EQUATION OF
MOTION
 Euler's equation of motion for a steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is a relationship
between a flowing fluid's velocity, pressure, and density.
 It is based on Newton's Second Law of Motion, which asserts that linear momentum is preserved
without an external force.
 The Bernoulli equation is obtained by integrating it and converting it to energy per unit weight of
the following fluid.
Assumptions in Euler's Equation of Motion
Euler's Equation of Motion is based on the following assumptions:
 The substance isn't viscous (i,e., the frictional losses are zero).
 The substance is uniform and incompressible (i.e., the mass density of the fluid is constant).
 Continuous, steady, and streamlined flow is present.
 Over the section, the flow's velocity is constant.
 Except for gravity and pressure forces, there is no energy or force influencing the flow.
 Because no external force is applied (non-viscous flow), linear momentum is conserved.
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
We now extend Newton’s second law of motion to cover a general mass system which we model by
considering n mass particles bounded by a closed surface in space, Fig. 4/1. This bounding envelope, for
example, may be the exterior surface of a given rigid body, the bounding surface of an arbitrary portion of
the body, the exterior surface of a rocket containing both rigid and flowing particles, or a particular volume
of fluid particles. In each case, the system to be considered is the mass within the envelope, and that mass
must be clearly defined and isolated. Figure 4/1 shows a representative particle of mass m i of the system
isolated with forces F1, F2, F3, . . . acting on mi from sources external to the envelope, and forces f 1, f2, f3, . . .
acting on mi from sources internal to the system boundary. The external forces are due to contact with
external bodies or to external gravitational, electric, or magnetic effects. The internal forces are forces of
reaction with other mass particles within the boundary. The particle of mass m i is located by its position
vector ri measured from the nonaccelerating origin O of a Newtonian set of reference axes. The center of
mass G of the isolated system of particles is located by the position vector which, from the definition of the
mass center as covered in statics, is given by
m = Σmi ri
where the total system mass is m = Σmi
the summation sign Σ represents the summation over all n particles.
Newton’s 2nd law, when applied to mi gives
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 +……………f1 + f2 + f3 + …….. =
 Where the acceleration of is the acceleration of . A similar equation may be written for each
of the particles of the system.
 If these equations written for all particles of the system are added together, the result is

ΣF + Σf = Σ
 The term ΣF then becomes the vector sum of all forces acting on all particles of the isolated
system from sources external to the system and Σf becomes the vector sum of all forces on all
particles produced by the internal actions and reactions between particles. This last sum is
identically zero since all internal forces occur in pairs of equal and opposite actions and reactions.
By differentiating the equation defining twice with time, we have
where m has a zero time derivative as long as mass is not entering or leaving the system.
 Substitution into the summation of the equations of motion gives
 Equation 4/1 is the generalized newton’s second law of motion for a mass system and is called the
equation of motion of m.
 The equation states that the resultant of the external forces on any system of masses equals the total mass
of the system times the acceleration of the center of mass. This law expresses the so-called principle of
motion of the mass center.
 Observe that is the acceleration of the mathematical point which represents instantaneously the position
of the mass center for the given n particles.
 For a nonrigid body, this acceleration need not represent the acceleration of any particular particle.
 Note also that eq. 4/1 holds for each instant of time and is therefore an instantaneous relationship.
Equation 4/1 for the mass system had to be proved, as it cannot be inferred directly from eq. 3/3 for a
single particle.
 Equation 4/1 may be expressed in component form using x-y-z coordinates or whatever coordinate
system is most convenient for the problem at hand.
 Thus,
 Although eq. 4/1, as a vector equation, requires that the acceleration vector have the same direction as
the resultant external force ΣF, it does not follow that ΣF necessarily passes through G.
 WORK - ENERGY
Consider the general system of fig. 4/1, where the work-
energy relation for the representative particle of mass mi Is (U1-
2)i = ΔTi.

Here (U1-2)i is the work done on mi during an interval of motion

by all forces F1 + F2 + F3 +…….. applied from sources external
to the system and by all forces f1 + f2 + f3 +…….. applied from
sources internal to the system. the kinetic energy of mi is Ti = ½
mivi2 , where vi is the magnitude of the particle velocity vi =
 WORK - ENERGY RELATION
 For the entire system, the sum of the work-energy equations written for all particles is

 Σ(U1-2)i = ΣΔTi.

 Which may be represented by (U1-2)i = ΔTi or T1 + U1-2 = T2 (4/2)

 Where U1-2 = Σ (U1-2) i , the work done by all forces, external and internal, on all particles and ΔT is the change
in the total kinetic energy T = Σti of the system.

For a rigid body or a system of rigid bodies joined by ideal frictionless

connections, no net work is done by the internal interacting forces or
moments in the connections. We see that the work done by all pairs of
internal forces, labeled here as fi and -fi, at a typical connection, fig. 4/2,
in the system is zero since their points of application have identical
displacement components while the forces are equal but opposite. For
this situation U1-2 becomes the work done on the system by the external
forces only.
For a nonrigid mechanical system which includes elastic members capable of
storing energy, a part of the work done by the external forces goes into changing
the internal elastic potential energy Ve. Also, if the work done by the gravity forces
is excluded from the work term and is accounted for instead by the changes in
gravitational potential energy Vg, then we may equate the work U’1-2 done on the
system during an interval of motion to the change ΔE in the total mechanical
energy of the system. Thus, U’1-2 = ΔE
Or U’1-2 = ΔT + ΔV (4/3)
Or T1 + V1 + U’1-2 = T2 +V2 (4/3a)
 KINETIC ENERGY EXPRESSION
According to principle of relative motion, we may write vi = +

Where is the velocity of the mass center G and is the velocity of mi with respect to a
translating reference frame moving with the mass center G.
We recall the identity vi2 = vi . vi and write the kinetic energy of the system as

T = Σ ½ mi.vi.vi
= Σ ½ mi ( + ) . ( + )
= Σ ½ mi 2 + Σ ½ mi 2 + Σ mi. .
Because ρi is measured from the mass center, Σ mi. ρi = 0 and the third term is . Σ mi
= . d/dt . Σ (mi. ρi) = 0
Also Σ ½ mi 2 = ½ 2 Σmi = ½ m2
4/4
IMPULSE MOMENTUM
 Linear momentum:

The linear momentum of the system is defined as the vector sum of the linear momenta of all of
its particles or
By substituting the relative velocity relation
and nothing again that
 Thus the linear momentum of any system of constant mass is the product of the mass and the
velocity of its center of mass.
 The time derivative of G is which is the resultant external force acting on the
system.
 Thus we have

(4/6)
 Angular momentum:

Angular momentum is defined as: The property of any rotating object given by moment of
inertia times angular velocity. It is the property of a rotating body given by the product of the
moment of inertia and the angular velocity of the rotating object. We now determine the angular
momentum of our general mass system about the fixed point O, about the mass center G, and
about an arbitrary point P.
About a Fixed Point O. The angular momentum of the mass system about the point O, fixed in
the Newtonian reference system, is defined as the vector sum of the moments of the linear
momenta about O of all particles of the system and is
 The time derivative of the vector product is
 The first summation vanishes since the cross product of two parallel vectors
 The second summation is,
 which is the vector sum of the moments about O of all forces acting on all particles of the
system. This moment sum ΣMO represents only the moments of forces external to the system,
 since the internal forces cancel one another and their moments add up to zero. Thus, the
moment sum is
 About the mass center G. The angular momentum of the mass system about the mass
center G is the sum of the moments of the linear moments about G of all particles and is
 About the an arbitrary point P.

 This equation states that the absolute angular momentum about any point P equals the angular
momentum about G plus the moment about P of the linear momentum of the system
considered concentrated at G.
 From figure 4/4, it represents the resultants of the external forces acting on the system
expressed in terms of the resultant force ΣF through G and the corresponding couple ΣMG
 So we may write,
 We may develop similar momentum relationships by using the momentum relative to P. Thus from
figure 4/3 we get
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND
MOMENTUM
Conservation of energy
A mass system is said to be conservative if it does not lose energy by virtue of internal friction
forces which do negative work or by virtue of inelastic members which dissipate energy upon
cycling. If no work is done on a conservative system during an interval of motion by external forces
(other than gravity or other potential forces), then none of the energy of the system is lost. For this
case, U’ 1-2 = 0 and we may write
ΔT + ΔV = 0
Or T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
which expresses the law of conservation of dynamical energy. The total energy E = T + V is a
constant, so that E1 = E2. This law holds only in the ideal case where internal kinetic friction is
sufficiently small to be neglected.
 Conservation of momentum
If for a certain interval of time, the resultant external force ΣF acting on a conservative or
nonconservative mass system is zero. During this interval
G1 = G2
Which expresses the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Thus, in the absence of an
external impulse, the linear momentum of a system remains unchanged.
Similarly, if the resultant moment about a fixed point O or about the mass center G of all external
forces on any mass system is zero,

These relations express the principle of conservation of angular momentum for a general mass
system in the absence of an angular impulse. Thus, if there is no angular impulse about a fixed
point (or about the mass center), the angular momentum of the system about the fixed point (or
about the mass center) remains unchanged. Either equation may hold without the other.
KINEMATICS OF RIGID
BODIES Rigid-Body Assumption
 We know that a rigid body as a system of particles for which the distances between the particles
remain unchanged.
 Thus, if each particle of such a body is located by a position vector from reference axes attached
to and rotating with the body, there will be no change in any position vector as measured from
these axes.
 This is, of course, an ideal case since all solid materials change shape to some extent when
forces are applied to them. Nevertheless, if the movements associated with the changes in shape
are very small compared with the movements of the body as a whole, then the assumption of
rigidity is usually acceptable.
 The displacements due to the flutter of an aircraft wing, for instance, do not affect the description
of the flight path of the aircraft as a whole, and thus the rigid-body assumption is clearly
acceptable.
 On the other hand, if the problem is one of describing, as a function of time, the internal wing
stress due to wing flutter, then the relative motions of portions of the wing cannot be neglected,
and the wing may not be considered a rigid body.
 Plane Motion
 A rigid body executes plane motion when all parts of the body move in parallel planes.
 For convenience, we generally consider the plane of motion to be the plane which contains the mass
center, and we treat the body as a thin slab whose motion is confined to the plane of the slab. This
idealization adequately describes a very large category of rigid body motions encountered in engineering.
The plane motion of a rigid body may be divided into several categories, as represented in Fig. 5/1.
 Translation is defined as any motion in which every line in the body remains parallel to its original
position at all times. In translation there is no rotation of any line in the body. In rectilinear translation,
part a of Fig. 5/1, all points in the body move in parallel straight lines. In curvilinear translation, part b,
all points move on congruent curves. We note that in each of the two cases of translation, the motion of
the body is completely specified by the motion of any point in the body, since all points have the same
motion. Thus, our earlier study of the motion of a point (particle) in Chapter 2 enables us to describe
completely the translation of a rigid body.
 Rotation about a fixed axis, part c of Fig. 5/1, is the angular motion about the axis. It follows that all
particles in a rigid body move in circular paths about the axis of rotation, and all lines in the body which
are perpendicular to the axis of rotation (including those which do not pass through the axis) rotate
through the same angle in the same time. Again, our discussion in Chapter 2 on the circular motion of a
point enables us to describe the motion of a rotating rigid body, which is treated in the next article.
 General plane motion of a rigid body, part d of Fig. 5/1, is a combination of translation and rotation. We
will utilize the principles of relative motion covered in Art. 2/8 to describe general plane motion.
ROTATION
The rotation of a rigid body is described by its angular motion. Figure 5/2 shows a rigid body which is rotating as
it undergoes plane motion in the plane of the figure.
The angular positions of any two lines 1 and 2 attached to the body are specified by ϴ1 and ϴ2 measured from any
convenient fixed reference direction. Because the angle β is invariant, the relation ϴ2 = ϴ1 + β upon differentiation
with respect to time gives
and or, during a finite interval, Δϴ2 = Δϴ1. Thus, all lines on a rigid body in its plane of motion have the same
angular displacement, the same angular velocity, and the same angular acceleration.
 Angular – motion relations
 The angular velocity ω and angular acceleration α of a rigid body in plane rotation are, respectively, the
first and second time derivatives of the angular position coordinate ϴ of any line in the plane of motion
of the body. These definitions give

 For rotation with constant angular acceleration, the integrals of Eqs. 5/1 becomes

 Here ϴ0 and ω0 are the values of the angular position coordinate and angular velocity, respectively, at t =
0, and t is the duration of the motion considered.
 Rotation about a fixed axis
 When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, all points other than those on the axis
move in concentric circles about the fixed axis.
 Thus, for the rigid body in Fig. 5/3 rotating about a fixed axis normal to the plane of
the figure through O, any point such as A moves in a circle of radius r.
We know that relationships between the linear motion of A and the angular motion of
the line normal to its path, which is also the angular motion of the rigid body. With the
notation for the angular velocity and angular acceleration, respectively, the equation
can be rewritten as
 These quantities may be expressed alternatively using the cross-product relationship of vector notation.

 The vector formulation is especially important in the analysis of three-dimensional motion.

 The angular velocity of the rotating body may be expressed by the vector ω normal to the plane of
rotation and having a sense governed by the right-hand rule, as shown in Fig. 5/4a.
 From the definition of the vector cross product, we see that the vector v is obtained by crossing ω into r.
This cross product gives the correct magnitude and direction for v and we write
 RELATIVE VELOCITY
Relative velocity due to rotation
 Two points are chosen on a same rigid body for two particles. The consequence of this choice is that the motion of
one point as seen by an observer translating with the other point must be circular since the radial distance to the
observed point from the reference point does not change. This observation is the key to the successful
understanding of a large majority of problems in the plane motion of rigid bodies.
 This concept is illustrated in Fig. 5/5a, which shows a rigid body moving in the plane of the figure from position
AB to A’B’ during time Δt.
 This movement may be visualized as occurring in two parts. First, the body translates to the parallel position A’’B’
with the displacement ΔrB.
 Second, the body rotates about B’ through the angle Δϴ.
 From the nonrotating reference axes x’-y’ attached to the reference point B’, it can be seen that this remaining
motion of the body is one of simple rotation about B’, giving rise to the displacement Δ of A with respect to B.
 To the nonrotating observer attached to B, the body appears to undergo fixed-axis
rotation about B with A executing circular motion as emphasized in Fig. 5/5b.
Therefore, the relationships developed for circular motion in Arts. 2/5 and 5/2 and
cited as Eqs. 2/11 and 5/2 (or 5/3) describe the relative portion of the motion of
point A.
Point B was arbitrarily chosen as the reference point for attachment of our
nonrotating reference axes x-y. Point A could have been used just as well, in which
case we would observe B to have circular motion about A considered fixed as shown
in Fig. 5/5c. We see that the sense of the rotation, counterclockwise in this example,
is the same whether we choose A or B as the reference, and we see that Δ = -Δ With B
as the reference point, we see from Fig. 5/5a that the total displacement of A is

Δ = Δ +Δ
 Interpretation of the relative velocity equation
 A rigid body in plane motion can be seen in figure 5/6.
With B chosen as the reference point, the velocity of A is the vector sum of the translational portion v B, plus the
rotational portion vA/B = ω X r, which has the magnitude vA/B = r ω, where |ω| = the absolute angular velocity of
AB. The fact that the relative linear velocity is always perpendicular to the line joining the two points in question
is an important key to the solution of many problems. To reinforce your understanding of this concept, you
should draw the equivalent diagram where point A is used as the reference point rather than B.
Equation 5/4 may also be used to analyze constrained sliding contact between two links in a mechanism. In this
case, we choose points A and B as coincident points, one on each link, for the instant under consideration. In
contrast to the previous example, in this case, the two points are on different bodies so they are not a fixed
distance apart.
 Solution of the Relative-Velocity Equation
Solution of the relative-velocity equation may be carried out by scalar or vector algebra, or a graphical analysis may
be employed. A sketch of the vector polygon which represents the vector equation should always be made to reveal
the physical relationships involved. From this sketch, you can write scalar component equations by projecting the
vectors along convenient directions. You can usually avoid solving simultaneous equations by a careful choice of the
projections. Alternatively, each term in the relative-motion equation may be written in terms of its i- and j-
components, from which you will obtain two scalar equations when the equality is applied, separately, to the
coefficients of the i- and j-terms.
Many problems lend themselves to a graphical solution, particularly when the given geometry results in an awkward
mathematical expression. In this case, we first construct the known vectors in their correct positions using a
convenient scale. Then we construct the unknown vectors which complete the polygon and satisfy the vector
equation. Finally, we measure the unknown vectors directly from the drawing.
The choice of method to be used depends on the particular problem at hand, the accuracy required, and individual
preference and experience. All three approaches are illustrated in the sample problems which follow. Regardless of
which method of solution we employ, we note that the single vector equation in two dimensions is equivalent to two
scalar equations, so that at most two scalar unknowns can be determined. The unknowns, for instance, might be the
magnitude of one vector and the direction of another. We should make a systematic identification of the knowns and
unknowns before attempting a solution.
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER OF
ZERO VELOCITY
 As far as velocities are concerned, the body may be considered to
be in pure rotation about an axis, normal to the plane of motion,
passing through this point. This axis is called the instantaneous axis
of zero velocity, and the intersection of this axis with the plane of
motion is known as the instantaneous center of zero velocity. This
approach provides us with a valuable means for visualizing and
analyzing velocities in plane motion.
 Locating instantaneous center

Assume that the directions of the absolute velocities of any two points A and B on the body are known and
are not parallel. If there is a point about which A has absolute circular motion at the instant considered, this
point must lie on the normal to vA through A.
Similar reasoning applies to B, and the intersection of the two perpendiculars fulfills the requirement for an
absolute center of rotation at the instant considered.
Point C is the instantaneous center of zero velocity and may lie on or off the body. If it lies off the body, it may
be visualized as lying on an imaginary extension of the body.
The instantaneous center need not be a fixed point in the body or a fixed point in the plane.

If we also know the magnitude of the velocity of one of the points, say, v A, we may easily obtain the angular
velocity ω of the body and the linear velocity of every point in the body. Thus, the angular velocity of the body,
Fig. 5/7a, is
Motion of the instantaneous center
RELATIVE ACCELERATION
Relative acceleration due to rotation
Interppretation of the Relative – Acceleration Equation
MOTION RELATIVE TO
ROTATING AXES
Time derivatives of unit vectors
Relative velocity
Transformaation of time derivatives
 Relative acceleration

We know that
Coriolis acceleration
Rotating versus nonrotating systems
KINETICS OF PLANE MOTION OF
RIGID BODIES
FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION
(General equation of motion)

 We know
 We know that a general system of forces act-
(Plane motion equation)
(alternative derivation)
(alternative moment equation)
(unconstrained and constrained motion)
(systems of interconnected bodies)
 TRANSLATION
 We know that every line in a translating body remains parallel to its original position at all
times. In rectilinear translation all points move in straight lines, whereas in curvilinear
translation all points move on congruent curved paths. In either case,
FIXED AXIS ROTATION
GENERAL PLANE MOTION
 The dynamics of a rigid body in general plane motion combines translation and rotation.
WORK AND ENERGY
Work - Energy relations
Work of forces and couples
 The work done by a force F given by
Kinetic energy
Potential Energy and the Work – Energy Equation
Power
Acceleration from Work - Energy
Virtual work

work.
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM ON
RIGID BODIES
Linear momentum
Angular momentum
Interconnected rigid bodies
Conservation of momentum
Impact of Rigid Bodies