Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Sequential Circuit Design

Charles Kime & Thomas Kaminski 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
(Edited by Dr. Muhamed Mudawar for COE 202 and EE 200 at KFUPM )

Overview
Sequential Circuit Design
Specification Formulation State Assignment Flip-Flop Input and Output Equation Verification

Sequential Circuit Design

The Design Procedure

Specification - Description of the Problem
Formulation - Obtain a state diagram or state table State Assignment - Assign binary codes to the states

Flip-Flop Input Equation Determination

Select flip-flop types Derive flip-flop equations from next state entries in the table

Output Equation Determination

Derive output equations from output entries in the table

Optimization - Optimize the equations Technology Mapping - Use available flip-flops and gate technology

Verification - Verify correctness of final design

Sequential Circuit Design 3

Formulation: Finding a State Diagram

A State is an abstraction of the history of the past applied inputs to the sequential circuit
A state is used to remember something about the history of input combinations applied to the circuit
The interpretation of past inputs is tied to the synchronous operation of the circuit An input value is considered only during the setup-hold time interval for an edge-triggered flip-flop.

Examples:
State A represents the fact that a 1 input has occurred among the past inputs. State B represents the fact that a 0 followed by a 1 have occurred as the most recent past two inputs.
Sequential Circuit Design 4

Formulation: Finding a State Diagram

In specifying a circuit, we use states to remember meaningful properties of past input sequences that are essential to predicting future output values
A sequence recognizer is a sequential circuit that produces a distinct output value whenever a prescribed pattern of input symbols occur in sequence, i.e, recognizes an input sequence occurence

We will develop a procedure specific to sequence recognizers to convert a problem statement into a state diagram
Next, the state diagram, will be converted to a state table from which the circuit will be designed
Sequential Circuit Design 5

Sequence Recognizer Procedure

Begin in an initial state in which NONE of the initial portion of the sequence has occurred (reset state)
Add a state that recognizes that first symbol has occurred Add states that recognize each successive symbol The final state represents the input sequence occurence Add state transition arcs which specify what happens when a symbol not in the proper sequence has occurred Add other arcs which transition to states that represent the input subsequence that has occurred
The circuit must recognize the input sequence regardless of where it occurs within the overall sequence
Sequential Circuit Design 6

Sequence Recognizer Example

Example: Recognize the sequence 1101
Example: the sequence 1111101 contains 1101

Thus, the sequential machine must remember that the first two one's have occurred as it receives another symbol Also, the sequence 1101101 contains 1101 as both an initial subsequence and a final subsequence with some overlap, i. e., 1101101 or 1101101 The 1 in the middle, 1101101, is in both subsequences The sequence 1101 must be recognized each time it occurs in the input sequence
Sequential Circuit Design 7

Example: Recognize 1101

Define states for the sequence to be recognized:
Assuming it starts with first symbol Continues through each symbol in the sequence to be recognized

Uses output 1 to mean the full sequence has occurred

With output 0 otherwise

Start in the initial state

State A is the initial state
Add a state B that recognizes the first 1

1/0

State B is the state which represents the fact that the first 1 in the input subsequence has occurred. The output symbol 0 means that the full recognized sequence has not yet occurred
Sequential Circuit Design 8

Example: Recognize 1101 (continued)

After one more 1, we have:
C is the state obtained when the input sequence has two 1s.

A 1/0

1/0

Finally, after 110 and a 1, we have:

1/0 A

1/0

0/0

1/1

Transition arcs are used to denote the output function Output 1 on the arc from D means the sequence is recognized To what state should the arc from state D go? recall 1101101

Sequential Circuit Design

Example: Recognize 1101 (continued)

A
1/0

1/0

0/0

1/1

Clearly the final 1 in the recognized sequence 1101 is a sub-sequence of 1101. It follows a 0 which is not a sub-sequence of 1101. Thus it should represent the same state reached from the initial state after a first 1 is observed. We obtain: A 1/0 B 1/0

C
1/1

0/0

Sequential Circuit Design

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Example: Recognize 1101 (continued)

A 1/0 B

1/0

0/0

1/1
The states have the following meanings:
A: Start state, no sub-sequence has occurred B: The sub-sequence 1 has occurred C: The sub-sequence 11 has occurred D: The sub-sequence 110 has occurred

The 1/1 on the arc from D to B means that the last 1 in 1101 has occurred and thus, the output is 1
Sequential Circuit Design 11

Example: Recognize 1101 (continued)

The other arcs are added to each state for inputs are not yet listed. Which arcs are missing?
A 1/0 B 1/0 C 0/0 D

Answer:
0 arc from state A 0 arc from state B 1 arc from state C 0 arc from state D

1/1

Sequential Circuit Design

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Example: Recognize 1101 (continued)

Add the arcs for missing inputs at any state to make the state diagram complete. We get:
0/0 A 1/0 0/0 B 1/0 C 1/1 1/0 0/0 D

0/0

The 1 arc from state C to itself implies that State C means two or more 1's have occurred.
Sequential Circuit Design 13

Formulation: Find the State Table

From the State Diagram, we can fill in the State Table

There are 4 states, one input, and one output

We will draw a table with four rows, one for each current state From State A, the 0 and 1 input transitions have been filled in along with the outputs
A

0/0 1/0 B 0/0 0/0

1/0

1/0

C
1/1

0/0

Present State A B C D

Next State x=0 x=1

Output x=0 x=1

Sequential Circuit Design

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Formulation: Find State Table

From the state diagram, we obtain the state table
0/0 A 1/0 B 1/0 C 1/1 0/0 0/0 D

1/0
0/0

Present State A B C D

Next State x=0 x=1 A B A C D C A B

Output x=0 x=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Sequential Circuit Design 15

State Assignment
Each state must be assigned a unique code Minimum number of bits required for m states in the state diagram is n such that n log2 m , where x is the smallest integer x

There are useful state assignments that use more than the minimum number of bits
If n bits are used, there are 2n m unused states

Sequential Circuit Design

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State Assignment Example

Present State A B C D Next State x=0 x=1 A B A C D C A B Output x=0 x=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

What is the minimum number of bits to code 4 states?

Answer: 2 bits (log2 4 = 2). Therefore, 2 flip-flops are required With 2 bits, we can have 4 codes: 00, 01, 10, and 11

How may assignments of 2-bit codes to the 4 states?

Answer: 4 3 2 1 = 24 possible assignments

Does code assignment make a difference in cost?

Answer: yes, it affects the cost of the combinational logic
Sequential Circuit Design 17

Counting Order State Assignment

One possible assignment is Counting Order A = 00, B = 01, C = 10, D = 11 The resulting coded state table:
Present State Y1 Y2 A=00 B=01 C=10 D=11 Next State x=0 x=1 00 00 11 00 01 10 10 01 Output Z x=0 x=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Sequential Circuit Design 18

General Structure of Sequence Detector

To implement the 1101 sequence detector
Choose the type of flip-flops that will be used as memory elements Determine and minimize the next state and output equations These equations are functions of input and current state Implement the next state and output combinational logic Input X Next State and Output Logic Current State Memory Elements Next State Output Z

Sequential Circuit Design

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Find Next State and Output K-maps

Assume D flip-flops & counting order assignment Obtain the K-maps for flip-flop inputs D1, D2, and output Z
Y1Y2 X

D1
0 1

Y1Y2

D2
0 1

Z
Y1Y2 X
0 1
00 01 11 10

00 01 11 10

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

00 01 11 10

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
20

Sequential Circuit Design

Perform two-level optimization

D1

D2

0 0 0 1 Y2 0 0 Y1 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 0 Y2 0 1 0 Y1 Y1 1 0 0

0 0 Y2 1 0

D1 = Y1Y2 + XY1Y2 D2 = XY1Y2 + XY1Y2 + XY1Y2 Z = XY1Y2 Gate Input Cost = 22

Sequential Circuit Design 21

Gray Code State Assignment

Another possible assignment is Gray Code: A = 00, B = 01, C = 11, D = 10 The resulting coded state table:
Present State Y1 Y2 A=00 B=01 C=11 D=10 Next State Output Z x=0x=1 x=0x=1 00 01 0 0 00 11 0 0 10 11 0 0 00 01 0 1
Sequential Circuit Design 22

K-Maps for Gray Code State Assignment

Assume D flip-flops and gray code assignment Obtain K-maps for D1, D2, and Z:
D1

D2

0 0 0 1 Y2 1 1 Y1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 Y2 0 0 1 Y1 Y1 0 0 1

0 0 Y2 0 1
23

Sequential Circuit Design

Perform two-level optimization

D1

D2

0 0 0 1 Y2 1 1 Y1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 Y2 0 0 1 Y1 Y1 0 0 1

0 0 Y2 0 1

D1 = Y1Y2 + XY2 Gate Input Cost = 9 D2 = X Select this state assignment to Z = XY1Y2 complete the design
Sequential Circuit Design 24

Map to Technology
Library: D-type Flip-Flops with Reset input
Reset input is used to reset to start state: Y1 Y2 = 00
D1 D C R Z D2 Y2 Y2 Y1

X Clock Reset

D C R

Sequential Circuit Design

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Circuit Implementation with NAND

D1

Y1 D

C R Z D2 Y2

D Y2

Clock Reset

C R

Sequential Circuit Design

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Using SR, JK, and T Flip-Flop Types

Characteristic table (used in analysis)
Defines the next state of the flip-flop in terms of flipflop inputs and current state

Characteristic equation (used also in analysis)

Obtained from characteristic table Defines the next state of the flip-flop as a Boolean function of the flip-flop inputs and the current state

Excitation table (used in design)

Defines the flip-flop input variable values as function of the current state and next state
Sequential Circuit Design 27

SR Flip-Flop
Characteristic Table
S R Q(t +1) Operation 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 Q(t) 0 1 ? No change Reset Set Undefined

Characteristic Equation Q(t+1) = S + R Q(t) S R = 0 (S and R cannot be 1 simultaneously) Symbol

Excitation Table
Q(t) Q(t+ 1) S R Operation 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 X No change 1 0 Set 0 1 Reset X 0 No change

S C R

Sequential Circuit Design

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JK Flip-Flop
Characteristic Table
J K Q(t+1) Operation

Characteristic Equation Q(t+1) = J Q(t) + K Q(t)

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

Q(t) 0 1 Q(t)

No change Reset Set Complement

Symbol

Excitation Table
Q(t) 0 0 1 1 Q(t +1) J K Operation 0 1 0 1 0 1 X X X X 1 0 No change Set Reset No Change

J C K

Sequential Circuit Design

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T Flip-Flop
Characteristic Table
T Q(t+1) 0 1 Q(t) Q(t) Operation No change Complement

Characteristic Equation Q(t+1) = T Q(t)

Symbol Excitation Table

Q(t)
0 0 1 1

T C

Q(t +1)
0 1 0 1

T
0 1 1 0

Operation
No change Complement Complement No Change

Sequential Circuit Design

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Obtaining Excitation Table for Flip Flops

Use T flip flop for Y1 and JK flip flop for Y2 Use Gray code assignment for states Obtain Excitation table for T and JK inputs:
Present Next T input JK input Output State State for Y1 for Y2 Z Y1 Y2 x=0 x=1 x=0 x=1 x=0 x=1 x=0 x=1 A=00 00 01 0 0 0X 1X 0 0

B=01 00 11 C=11 10 11 D=10 00 01

0 0 1

1 0 1

X1 X0 X1 X0 0X 1X

0 0 0

0 0 1
Sequential Circuit Design 31

Optimize Equations for T, J, and K

T
Y1Y2 x
0 1

J
Y1Y2 x
0 1

K
Y1Y2 x
0 1 00 01

00 01

11
10

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

00 01

11
10

0 1 X X X X 0 1

11
10

X X 1 0 1 0 X X

T = Y1 Y2 + X Y1 Y2, J = X, K = X Z = X Y1 Y2 (no change) Total Gate Input Cost = 7 + 3 = 10

Sequential Circuit Design 32

Circuit Implementation
Reset input is used to reset Y1Y2 to 00 (start state)
Y1 Y C R
1

Z Y2

X X Clock Reset

J K C R

Y2

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One-Hot Assignment
Use one flip-flop per state: m states m flip-flops
Y3Y2Y1Y0 = 0001 (state A), 0010 (B), 0100 (C), 1000 (D)

Flip-flop cost is higher but combinational logic might be simpler Provides simplified analysis and design
In equations, need to include only the variable that is 1 for the state, e. g., state with code 0001, is represented in equations by Y0 instead of Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 because if Y0 is 1 then the remaining state variables will be 0

Sequential Circuit Design

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One-Hot State Assignment

A = 0001, B = 0010, C = 0100, D = 1000 The resulting coded state table:
Present State Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 0001 0010 0100 1000 Next State x=0 x=1 0001 0010 0001 0100 1000 0100 0001 0010 Output x=0 x=1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Sequential Circuit Design

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Optimization: One Hot Assignment

No need for K-map, flip-flop input equations can be obtained directly from the state table Assume D Flip-Flops D0 = X(Y0+ Y1 + Y3) or X Y2 D1 = X(Y0+ Y3) = X Y1 Y2 D2 = X(Y1+ Y2) = X Y0 Y3 D3 = X Y2 Z = XY3 Gate Input Cost = 12 Total cost = combinational circuit cost + cost of four flip-flops
Sequential Circuit Design 36

Mealy and Moore Sequential Circuits

Two ways to design clocked sequential circuits
Mealy and Moore type sequential circuits

Mealy type sequential circuit

Output is a function of current state and input
Input X Output Z

Next State and

Output Logic

Current State

Memory Elements

Next State

Example: 1101 sequence detector discussed above

Sequential Circuit Design 37

Moore Type Sequential Circuits

Output depends on current state only
Output does not depend on input

Combinational logic is divided into two parts

Next state logic depends on input and current state Output logic depends on current state only
Input X Next State Logic Memory Elements Output Logic

Current State

Next State

Output Z
Sequential Circuit Design 38

Moore Model for Sequence 1101 Detector

For the Moore Model, outputs depend on states We need to add a state E with output value 1 for the final 1 in the recognized input sequence
This new state E, though similar to B, would generate an output of 1 and thus be different from state B

The Moore model for a sequence recognizer usually has more states than the Mealy model

Sequential Circuit Design

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Moore State Diagram

We mark outputs on states for Moore model
0 A/0 1 0 0 B/0 1 1 E/1 0 1 0

For Mealy, outputs were marked on arcs

C/0
1

D/0

Arcs now show state transitions and input only Add a new state E to produce the output 1

Note that the new state E produces the same behavior as state B, but gives a different output: 1 rather than 0
Sequential Circuit Design 40

Moore State Table

State and output tables are shown below Observe that output y does not depend on input x
Present State A B C D E Next State x=0 x=1 A B A C D C A E A C Output y 0 0 0 0 1
0
A/0 1 0 0 0 B/0 1 1 E/1

1 0
C/0 1 D/0

Moore state diagram typically results in More states

Sequential Circuit Design

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State Assignment for Moore Detector

As in the Mealy sequence detector, the Moore sequence detector follows the same procedure for state assignment and optimizing the circuit implementation Using one-hot assignment, 5 state variables are required
Present State
Y4 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 A=00001 B=00010 C=00100 D=01000 E=10000

Next State
x=0 00001 00001 01000 00001 00001 x=1 00010 00100 00100 10000 00100

Output
Z 0 0 0 0 1

Sequential Circuit Design

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Equations for Moore Sequence Detector

Using D Flip Flops, input equations:
D0 = X (Y0 + Y1 + Y3 + Y4) = X Y2 D1 = X Y0 D2 = X (Y1 + Y2 + Y4) = X Y0 Y3 D3 = X Y2 D4 = X Y3 Output Equation Z Z = Y4

Gate input cost = 11

Sequential Circuit Design 43

Circuit Implementation
D0 D S Clock Q Q Y0 Y0 R D1 D Q Q Y1

X X D2 Y2 Y2 D3 Y3 Y3 D4

Reset to Start State A = 00001 Reset Y4Y3Y2Y1 and set Y0

D R

Q Q

D R

Q
Q

D R

Q Q

Y4

Reset

Sequential Circuit Design

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Verification
Sequential circuits should be verified by showing that the circuit produces the original state diagram Verification can be done manually, or with the help of a simulation program All possible input combinations are applied at each state and the state variables and outputs are observed A reset input is used to reset the circuit to its initial state Apply a sequence of inputs to test all the state-input combinations, i.e., all transitions in the state diagram Observe the output and the next state that appears after each clock edge in the timing diagram
Sequential Circuit Design 45

Input Test Sequence

An input test sequence is required to verify the correct operation of a sequential circuit It should test each state transition of the state diagram Test sequences can be generated from the state diagram Consider the Moore sequence detector. Starting at A (after reset), we can generate an input test sequence: X=0101110110011010
1

0
2,4,12 5,13

1 C 0 0
7,10,14

reset

A 0

1
0
3

B 0

D 0
16

1
8,15

E 1

11

0 0
Sequential Circuit Design 46

Verifying the Moore Sequence Detector

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Clock Reset Input X 0

0 A A 1 0 A 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 A 1 1 0 1 0 A

Y0
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Output Z

B
C C D E 1 C D

B
C D E 1

Sequential Circuit Design

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Moore versus Mealy Sequential Circuits

Output in a Moore sequential circuit is associated with a state, while output in a Mealy circuit is associated with a transition between states In general, Moore state diagrams have more states than corresponding Mealy state diagrams and the Moore sequential circuit implementation might have higher cost Since the output in a Mealy machine is a combination of present state and input values, an unsynchronized input may result in an invalid output (drawback of Mealy) A Moore state diagram produces a unique output for every state irrespective of inputs. Output of a Moore machine is synchronized with the clock (better)
Sequential Circuit Design 48

Designing a 111 Sequence Detector

To illustrate the drawback of the Mealy machine, consider the design of a 111 sequence detector
0/0 reset A 1/1

1/0
0/0

1/0

Mealy State Diagram

0/0
1

0 reset A 0

1
0

B 0

1
0

C 0

1 0

D 1

Moore State Diagram

Sequential Circuit Design

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State Assignment and Equations

A minimum of 2 state variables are required Using Gray Code state assignment and D flip flops
Mealy State Table Present State Next State
Y1 Y0 A=00 B=01 C=11

Moore State Table Present State Next State Output

Y1 Y0 A=00 B=01 C=11 D=10

Output
0 0 0 0 0 1

x=0
00 00 00

x=1 x=0 x=1

01 11 11

x=0
00 00 00 00

x=1
01 11 10 10

Z
0 0 0 1

D1 = X Y0 D0 = X Z = X Y1

D1 = X (Y0 + Y1) D0 = X Y1 Z = Y1 Y0
Sequential Circuit Design 50

Timing Diagrams
Clock Reset X A = 00 Y1 1 B = 01 1 C = 11 0 A = 00 1 B = 01 1 C = 11 1 C = 11 1 C = 11

Mealy

Y0 Z False Output

A = 00
Y1

B = 01

C = 11

A = 00

B = 01

C = 11

D = 10

D = 10

Moore

Y0 Z
Sequential Circuit Design 51