Divergence of the electric field

The flux of E through a surface S

Actually, what does this measure?

Flux through any closed surface is a measure of the total charge inside.

q
q
Point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a sphere of radius r is

Notice: same number of field lines pass through

any sphere (whatever be its size, centered at the charge)
q
or any other shape too.

Actually it is independent of the shape of the volume (bounded by the closed surface)

Flux through any surface enclosing the charge

 What if there are more than one charges?

Use superposition principle :

Flux through a surface that encloses them all, is

Qenc is the total charge within the volume (bounded by the closed surface S)

Gauss Law (integral form)

Differential form of Gauss’s Law

(Applying divergence theorem)

r is the charge density

Gauss Law (differential form)

Curl of the electric field

Calculate
Calculate
Using Stokes theorem,
Concept of ‘potential’
As (i.e. Gradient of a scalar)

Check that : ( V ) 0 V : ‘potential’

How does Gauss law look like in terms of the potential :

(Laplacian of the potential)

(Poisson’s equation)

(charge free region, Laplace’s equation)

 (The gradient theorem)
b 
P (T) d l T(b)  T(a )
a

Integral is taken along any curve P that has end-points a and b

b
Fundamental theorem of calculus df ( x )
for a function of one variable 
a
dx
dx f (b)  f (a )

For the electric potential, the line integral of a gradient is

independent of the path taken from a to b. The gradient
theorem ensures this. Such fields are said to be ‘conservative
fields’
b
  b 
a
E d l  (V) d l V(a )  V(b)
a
Applying Gauss’s Law
Look for the symmetry involved in the problem:

1. Spherical symmetry

(Make Gaussian surface a concentric sphere)

2. Cylindrical symmetry

(Make Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder)

3. Planar symmetry
(Make Gaussian pillbox)
 Consider a line( or rod) of charge that is very long (infinite)

We can ENCLOSE it within a CYLINDER. Thus our Gaussian surface is a cylinder.

E points radially outwards

+
+ qenc qenc
+ E da  E (2 rL) 
+
+
o o
+
+
+ L
+ E (2 rL)  Note :
+ o Q
+
+  
E L
2 r o Q  L qenc
Acylinder 2 rL
Griffiths: (Chapter 2)
Biot-Savart Law
Volume current density

Current per unit area perpendicular to the flow

‘mobile’ volume charge density velocity

Divergence of the magnetic field

(A C) C (A)  A (C)

 : is taken at (x,y,z) : but J is a function of (x’,y’,z’)

= ?
Curl of the magnetic field

Magnetic field due to an infinitely long wire

Stokes’ theorem (curl, line integral .. )

Contour integral of B around a circular path of radius s

 Try this …
Create a contour for integration (a circle or a loop enclosing the wire)
 I
B aˆ from the Biot-Savart law (aˆ is tangential to circle)
2 R
   I  
Calculate B.dl    ˆ
 a.dl note : B and d l are parallel
 2  R 
 
B .d l B d l  B d l, ( | B | = constant)

  I   I 
dl
B .dl   dl   2 R I B
 2 R   2 R 
 B
B.dl I
I
 B

B.dl I dl
B
dl
Curl of the magnetic field

Notice : RHS is independent of the radius of the circle,

(any closed loop enclosing the wire will give the same answer)

I5 Take a closed contour

I1

I3 These currents are “enclosed”

I2 And these currents are not

I6
Curl of the magnetic field

Notice : RHS is independent of the radius of the circle,

(any closed loop enclosing the wire will give the same answer)
Curl of the magnetic field

(Ampere’s Law)

(Integral form of Ampere’s Law)

Stationary charge Electrostatics : Coulomb’s Law --- Gauss Law

Steady Currents Magnetostatics : Biot-Savart Law --- Ampere’s Law

Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics:

Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics:

E diverges away from a positive charge (or terminates to negative charge)
---- non zero divergence

B curls around a current … not beginning at a ‘pole’ --- no magnetic

‘charges’ or monopoles --- zero divergence
Stationary charge Electrostatics : Coulomb’s Law --- Gauss Law

Steady Currents Magnetostatics : Biot-Savart Law --- Ampere’s Law

Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics:

(irrotational)

Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics:

(solenoidal)
Remember : the electric scalar potential

Was a consequence of

What does it mean? Actually V is not ‘unique’ :

One can add to V, any function whose gradient is zero such that E is not altered.

V  V   , such that  0

Therefore, is telling us something

The magnetic vector potential

Therefore, is telling us something

However, what happens to Ampere’s Law?

Use :
 Still does not have the ‘feeling’ of

Another freedom that we have :

Add to vector potential A , gradient of a scalar
(as curl of (gradient of a scalar) = 0)
We get the same magnetic field B

We can then use this freedom to ‘kill’ the term

Another freedom that we have :
Add to vector potential A , gradient of a scalar
(as curl of (gradient of a scalar) = 0)
We get the same magnetic field B

Let us say that out ‘original vector potential’ is A0

B A0

A  A0  
‘New’ vector potential :

A ( A0   )
A0  ( ) A0 B
Another freedom that we have :
Add to vector potential A , gradient of a scalar
(as curl of (gradient of a scalar) = 0)
We get the same magnetic field B

Let us say that out ‘original vector potential’ is A0

‘New’ vector potential : A  A0  

Choose l, such that

Then we can have

Another freedom that we have :
Add to vector potential A , gradient of a scalar
(as curl of (gradient of a scalar) = 0)
We get the same magnetic field B

How to get l, such that

Guidance from Electrostatics (Poisson’s equation)

If r goes to zero at large distance (infinity)

Guidance from Electrostatics (Poisson’s equation)

If r goes to zero at large distance (infinity)

Solution of :

If
Another freedom that we have :
Add to vector potential A , gradient of a scalar
(as curl of (gradient of a scalar) = 0)
We get the same magnetic field B

Let us say that out ‘original vector potential’ is A0

‘New’ vector potential : A  A0  

Choose l, such that

Then we can have

(Assuming J goes to zero at large distance)
Stationary charge Electrostatics : Coulomb’s Law --- Gauss Law

Steady Currents Magnetostatics : Biot-Savart Law --- Ampere’s Law

Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics:

(irrotational)

Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics:

(solenoidal)
What does Poisson’s eqn tell us? : Given V, get the charge density.

But, generally we want it the other way around!

Potential of a point charge at origin

(discrete distribution)

(continuous distribution)

(Volume charge)
Griffiths:
 Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics:
(solenoidal)

The differential form of ‘Gauss’s Law of magnetism’ : .B 0

The integral form of ‘Gauss’s Law of magnetism’ :  B.ds 0
s

“Net flux is zero” : there are exactly the same number of "magnetic field lines"
entering and exiting the volume. No total "magnetic charge" can build up in any point
in space.
 Ampere’s Law examples
(1) Infinitely long, thin conductor

B is azimuthal, constant on circle of radius r B

o I
B.d o Iencl  B 2 r o I  B  2 r
Exercise: find radial profile of B inside and outside conductor of
radius R

B o Ir
Br R 
2 R 2
o I
Br R 
2 r
r
R
 Solenoid
Distributed-coiled conductor B
Key parameter: n loops/metre
I
If finite length, sum individual loops via B-S Law

If infinite length, apply Ampere’s Law

B constant and axial inside, zero outside
Rectangular path, axial length L
I
L
B vac .d o I encl  B vacL o nL I  B vac onI

(use label Bvac to distinguish from core-filled solenoids)

solenoid is to magnetostatics what capacitor is to electrostatics

 Volume current density

Current per unit area perpendicular to the flow

Surface current density

Current per unit width-perpendicular-to-the-flow

‘Mobile’ surface charge density velocity

Griffiths (example 5.8)

B points left above the plane and right below it

One Bl comes from the top segment and the other from the bottom
Griffiths