ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

By DEUTCHOUA NOURA,level 3
INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms and
their environment.
 Description of ecological terms
1. Species
This is a group of organisms or individuals capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile off springs.
2. Population
This is a group of organisms or individuals of the same species which occupy a
particular area or habitat at the same point and time. The population size of a
given species changes with time and changes in environmental factors.
3. Habitat
This is a place or physical area where the organism or species lives in an
ecosystem.
Description of ecological terms

4. Community
A community is a group of plants and animals of different species living
together in a certain environment i.e. plant and animal community.
5. Ecological niche
Refers to the particular part of the habitat where an organism lives, its
feeding habits and how it interacts with other organisms in the habitat
in terms of the role it plays and the total environmental factors
affecting the organism in the ecosystem.
Description of ecological terms

6. Ecosystem
• An ecosystem refers to the interaction between living organisms and non-living
components of the environment or habitat to form a self-supporting system e.g. in a pond
or aquatic ecosystem. It consists of phytoplanktons, saprophytes, zooplanktons as the
biotic component (living) whose interaction with Types of ecosystem -
There are two main kinds of
I. Natural Ecosystem – These ecosystems operate under natural conditions without any major
interference of man. They may be terrestrial or aquatic.
Terrestrial : - as forest, grassland, desert etc.
Aquatic : - as pond, river, lake, wetland, estuary etc.
II. Artificial Ecosystem – These ecosystems are man made and artificially maintained by
addition of energy and planned manipulations.Cropland and an aquariumead decaying
organic matter or recycle for self-sustainability.
Description of ecological terms

7. Biosphere
This is part of the earth inhabited by living organisms. The biosphere comprises of
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.
The biosphere is subdivided into bio-geographical regions each inhabited by destructive
species of plants and animals that are favored by unique conditions of such areas.
Bio-geographical regions are also subdivided into particular areas called ‘biomass/biomes’.
Biome refers to a large recognizable community formed as a result of interaction between
regional climates with regional/biotic e.g. tropical rain forests, tropical savanna, desert,
temperate region. The biome is divided into zones e.g. forests biome forms the ground
level and canopy. The lake forms the limnetic zone, littoral zone, benthos and profundal
zone, each zone supporting a particular type of organisms.
The structure of the ecosystem (Components of
the ecosystem)

1. Biotic component:
These are the components which interact between the different living organisms e.g.
competition, predation, symbiosis. Also they are called density dependent factors.
2. Abiotic factors (density independent factors)
These are factors affecting the population regardless of the number of individuals within e.g.
temperature changes, natural catastrophes like foods, storms, volcanicity, fire, earth quake,
drought, etc.
3. Edaphic factors
The soil directly influences plant growth and indirectly the animal population e.g. soil
texture, soil pH, air, humus, salts, water, etc.
4. Climatic factors (density dependent)
E.g. light, water/rain fall, wind/air, relative humidity, temperature.
The biotic part includes producers, primary consumers (first level carnivores), tertiary
consumers (higher carnivores), decomposers, detritivores, etc.
 Energy Flow
1) Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems except deep sea
ecosystems.
2) OF the total incident solar radiation, less than 50% of it is
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
3) Plants capture only 2-10 % of the PAR and this small amount of energy
sustains the entire living world.
4) Directly or indirectly, all organisms are dependent for their food on
producers.
5) There is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and then to
consumers. The direction cannot be reversed. Energy can be used only once in
the ecosystem.
Energy flow
• Producers
Organisms able to make their own food from inorganic compounds
using photosynthesis Plants, protista (algae), and some bacteria
•  At the bottom of all food pyramids, all other organisms depend on
producers for energy.
Energy flow
Consumers
Consumers get energy by feeding on producers or other consumers
Classification depends on location within the in the food chain:

• Primary = animals that eat producers (herbivores), ex. deer

• Secondary = animals that eat primary consumers (carnivores) or
primary consumers and producers
• (omnivores), ex. wolves
• Tertiary = eat secondary consumers, can still be carnivores or omnivore
Energy flow
Trophic level
Organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that is their trophic
level.
• Producers belong to the first trophic level.
• Herbivores (Primary consumer) to the second trophic level.
• Carnivores (Secondary consumer) to the third trophic level.

Food Chain
Food chains are always straight and have four or five trophic levels.
Energy flow
Energy flow
There are three types of food chains.
1) Grazing Food Chain.
2) Detritus Food Chain.
3) Parasitic Food Chain.
A simple Grazing Food Chain (GFC) is as
Energy flow
Energy flow
Detritus Food chain
• The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
composed of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They get their energy and nutrients by degrading the
detritus. These are known as saprotrophs.
Decomposers secrete enzymes that breakdown dead organic materials in
to simple inorganic materials which are absorbed by them. Detritus food
chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels. In a
natural ecosystem some animals like cockroaches, crows, bears, man etc
are omnivores which eat producers as well as consumers. These natural
interconnection of food chains make it a food web.
Food web
Ecological pyramid
• Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of the relationship
between the organisms of various successive trophic levels with respect
to energy, biomass and number.
Ecological pyramid
I) Pyramid of number
1. The relative number of individuals per unit area at different trophic levels,
constitutes the number pyramid.
2. It shows relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels, in terms of their number.
3. In grassland, the producers which are mainly grasses are always more in number.
4. This number goes on reducing from base to apex of the pyramid.
5. The primary consumers as rabbits, mice etc are lesser than the number of
grasses.
6. As we go in upward direction i.e. to secondary, tertiary/ top level consumers as
hawk or other birds their number will be least. Thus the pyramid is upright.
Ecological pyramid
Ecological pyramid

II) Pyramid of Biomass

1. In most of the ecosystems, pyramid of biomass is upright like pyramid
of numbers.
2. Producers are always more in biomass than herbivores and herbivores
are more in biomass than the carnivores.
3. However there are exceptions to this generalization.
4. The pyramid of biomass in sea is also inverted because the biomass
of fishes is more than that of phytoplanktons.
Ecological pyramid
Ecological pyramid

III) Pyramid of Energy

1. Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because
when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic
level some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
2. In smaller food chains,more energy is available than in the longer
food chains.
Ecological pyramid
Symbiosis

An interaction between individuals of different biological species.

One of the organisms receive a benefit from the interaction, the other
can either receive a benefit, be harmed, or not be affected in any way.
Symbiosis

• Commensalism
One organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed in a
commensalistic relationship.
• Mutualism
Both organisms benefit in a mutualistic relationship. Ex. flowers and
pollinators
• Parasitism
One organism benefits and the other is harmed in a parasitic
relationship. Ex. mosquitoe
Population Growth
Population Size = the number of individuals within a given population

Population Density = the number of organisms in the population

divided by a regular unit of area or volume
Affected by birth/death rate, immigration/emigration, and limiting
factors which are physical, biological or chemical factors that can affect
the growth or diversity of organisms within an ecosystem
Affected by natural causes, diseases, changes in climate, the
introduction of non-native species, and human activit
 Nutrients cycles

The movement of nutrient element through the various components of

an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycle.
The nutrients which are never lost from the ecosystems are recycled
indefinitely.
• There are two types of nutrient cycles
a) Gaseous b) Sedmimentary.
The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycles (e.g. nitrogen, carbon
cycle) is atmosphere. For the sedimentary cycle (e.g. phosphorus cycle)
the reservoir is earth’s crust.
Carbon cycle
Carbon constitutes 49 % of dry weight of organisms out of total quantity of global
carbon 71 % is found dissolved in oceans. Thus ocean is reservoir of carbon. Fossil
fuels like oil, coal and natural gas also represents a reservoir of carbon.
1) Carbon as CO2 moves from the atmosphere to plants Through the process of
photosynthesis, CO2 is pulled from the air to produce food.
2) Carbon moves from plants to animals through food chains, i.e. carbon present
in plants moves to the animals.
3) Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere. Each time you exhale, you
are releasing CO2 in to the atmosphere.
4) Decomposers also contribute CO2 in atmosphere by their processing of waste
materials and dead organic matter of land and oceans.
Carbon cycle
5) When fossil fuel burns to power factories, power plants motor
vehicles, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as CO2.
6) Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil
fuel and volcanic activity are additional sources for releasing CO2 in
atmosphere.
7) Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans. The oceans and
other water bodies absorb some carbon in the form of co2 from the
atmosphere. The carbon is dissolved in to the oceanic water. Some
amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from
circulation.
Carbon cycle
8)Rapid deforestation
and massive burning
of fossil fuel for
energy and transport
have increased the
rate of release of co2
in to atmosphere.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen cycle

• Nitrogen Fixation Process

It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is
primarily available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -ammonia (NH3).
done by symbiotic bacteria, which are known as Diazotrophs. Azotobacter and
Rhizobium also have a major role in this process.
Nitrification
the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil .Nitrites
are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria
species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter.
Assimilation
plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help of their roots,
Nitrogen cycle

• Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter
is released back into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or
fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter back into
ammonium
Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make
their way back into the atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into
gaseous nitrogen (N).Done by Clostridium and Pseudomonas
water cycle
Water cycle
• The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the
Earth and atmosphere. Liquid water evaporates into water vapor,
condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form
of rain and snow. Water in different phases moves through the
atmosphere (transportation). Liquid water flows across land
(runoff),into the ground (infiltration and percolation), and through
the ground (groundwater). Groundwater moves into plants (plant
uptake) and evaporates from plants into the atmosphere
(transpiration). Solid iceand snow can turn directly into gas
(sublimation). The opposite can also take place when water vapor
becomes solid (deposition).
Evolution
Theories of Evolution
The theory of special creation or divine intervention was challenged by
Charles Darwin.He made observations on his sea­trip around the world
and concluded that all existing living forms share similarities among
themselves and also with other life forms, which existed millions of
years ago of which many are extinct.
● The evolution of life forms has been gradual and those life forms
better fit in environments that leave more progeny. This is called
natural selection.
Evidences of Evolution
● Fossils​− They represent plants and animals that lived millions of years ago and are
now extinct. Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life­forms, which
probably died during the formation of the particular sediment.
● Comparative anatomy and morphology​− It shows evidences of the similarities and
differences between living forms of today and that of the prehistoric times. Some of
the examples of comparative anatomy and morphology are:
● Homologous organs​− All mammals share the same pattern of forelimbs. Though
they perform different functions, they are anatomically similar. This is called divergent
evolution​and the structures are called homologous structures (common ancestors).
● Analogous organs​− The pair of organs is not anatomically similar,but performs the
same function (e.g., the wings of butterflies and birds). This is called convergent
evolution​.
Biological Evolution & Mechanism of Evolution

● According to Darwin, evolution took place by natural selection.

Hardy­Weinberg Principle

● The frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene in a population

remains constant through generations unless disturbances such as
mutations, non­random mating, etc. are introduced.
● Sum total of all allelic frequencies is 1.
● Individual frequencies are represented as p and q such as in a
diploid,where p and q represent the frequency of allele A and a.
The frequency of AA is p2, that of aa is q2, and that of Aa is 2pq.
● Hence, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, which is the expansion of (p + q)2
Evolution of Plants and Animals

Evolution of Plants
● Cellular life forms occurred on earth about 2000 million years ago.
● Some of these cells had the ability to produce oxygen through
reactions similar to photosynthesis.
● Slowly, single­celled organisms became multicellular.
● Seaweeds and some plants probably existed around 320 million years
ago
 Evolution of Plants and Animals

Evolution of Animals
● Animals evolved about 500 million years ago. The first of them toevolve were invertebrates.
● Jawless fishes evolved around 350 million years ago
● Some of the fishes could go on land, and then come back to water. These were the first
amphibians. In 1938, a fish Coelacanth, which was thought to be extinct, was caught in South
Africa. This variety of fish, called lobefins, is believed to have evolved into the first amphibians.
● Amphibians evolved into reptiles. In the next 200 million years,reptiles of different sizes
dominated the earth. However, about 65million years ago, some of them such as dinosaurs
disappeared.
● The first among the mammals were small shrew­like mammals.
● During continental drift when North America joined South America,primitive mammals
suffered, but pouched mammals of Australia survived the same drift because of lack of
competition from other mammals