Equalization Ed Us at

Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
20
Equalization, Diversity, Channel Coding
and
Three techniques are used independently or in tandem to improve receiver signal quality
Equalization compensates for ISI created by
multipath with time dispersive channels (W>BC) Change the overall response to remove ISI
Equalization, Diversity, Channel Coding
and
Diversity also compensates for fading
channel impairments, and is usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas Multiple received copies: Spatial diversity, antenna polarization diversity, frequency diversity, time diversity. Reduces the depth and duration of the fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading (narrowband) channel
Channel Coding improves mobile communication link performance by adding redundant data bits in the transmitted message
Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct some (or all) of the errors introduced by the channel (Post detection technique) Block code and convolutional code
Equalization Techniques
The term equalization can be used to describe any signal processing operation that minimizes ISI Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer: training and tracking Three factors affect the time spanning over which an equalizer converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer structure and time rate of change of the multipath radio channel TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for equalizers
Equalization Techniques
dn
Symbol Mapper
vn
ISI
Channel
rn
Equalizer
zn
Decision Device
dn
Channel Response
Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a receiver
y(t) = x(t) f (t) + n (t) b
f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t) nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
Block Diagram
Equalization
If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency response For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to track the channel variations
d (t ) = y (t ) heq (t ) = x (t ) f
(t ) heq (t ) +mb (t ) heq (t )

= (t )
F ( f ) H eq ( f
) =1
Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer

Traversal filter with N delay elements, N+1 taps, and N+1 tunable complex weights These weights are updated continuously by an adaptive algorithm The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek
Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer
Minimize Estimation Error

Classical equalization theory : using training sequence to minimize the cost function E[e(k) e*(k)] Recent techniques for adaptive algorithm : blind algorithms Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA, used for constant envelope modulation) Spectral Coherence Restoral Algorithm (SCORE, exploits spectral redundancy or cyclostationarity in the Tx signal)
Error signal where
T T ek =xk yk =xk k yk k
Derivation
yk 1
yk =[ yk
yk 2
....
yk N ]
k = [k
2
k 1
k 2
....
k N ]
Mean square error ek
2 T T T = xk + yk yk 2 xk yk k k k
Expected MSE =E e k where
] =E[x ] + R2p
2 k T
Derivation
2 yk yk 1 yk =E .... yk N yk
R = E yk y* k
yk yk 1 2 yk 1 .... yk N yk 1
yk yk 2 yk 1 yk 2 .... yk N yk 2
.... yk yk N .... yk 1 yk N .... .... 2 .... yk N

T
p = E[ xk yk ] = E[ xk yk
xk yk 1
xk yk 2 .... xk yk N ]
Derivation
1 Optimum weight vector =R p Minimum mean square error (MMSE)
min = E p R p
2 T 1
2 = E
[ ]
[ ]
Minimizing the MSE tends to reduce the bit error rate

Training Sequence
Data transmission
Training Sequence
Data transmission
Training Sequence then Data transmission within each frame
Classification of Equalizer
if d(t) is not in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the equalization is linear if d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer, the equalization is nonlinear
Linear transversal equalizer

LTE, made up of tapped delay lines
ARMA Model (FIR, IIR)
Linear Transversal Equalizer
Linear Transversal Equalizer

* k = C n y k n d n = N 1 N2
No T T E e(n) = d 2 2 T F( e jt ) + N o
2
F (e jt )
:frequency response of the channel
No
:noise spectral density
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

The circuit complexity and processing time increases with the number of taps and delay elements Three classic equalizer algorithms : zero forcing (ZF), least mean squares (LMS), and recursive least squares (RLS) algorithms
Zero forcing (ZF) Algorithm

The equalizer coefficients are chosen to force the combined channel and the equalizer response to zero at all but one of the NT spaced sample points. The impulse Response of the equalizer is the inverse of the Channel Hch (f) Heq (f) = 1, | f| < 1/2T By letting the length of the equalizer to infinity , zero ISI at the output is obtained.
Example
Y(k)= 0.0,0.1,1.0,-0.2,0.1 use ZF and find the tap weights for a 3 tap equalizer.
Yk D C-1 C0 D C1
dK
ZF
X(0) x(-1) x(-2) X(1) x(0) x(-1) X(2) x(1) x(0)
-1 1.0 0.1 0.0 0 1 0 C1 = C-1 C0 C1 = 0 1 0
C-1 C0
-0.2 1.0 0.1 0.1 -.02 1.0
Solving C-1 =-0.096, C0=0.96, C1=0.2

Find the equalized output for sampling instants of 2
d2 = c-1y3 + c0y2 +c1 y1 = -0.096x0 + 0.96x0.1+0.2x-0.2 = 0.056
d-2 = c-1y-1 + c0y-2 +c1 y-3 = -0.096 x 0.1 + 0.96 x 0 +0.2x0 = -0.0096
Lattice Filter
Characteristics of Lattice Filter Advantages

Numerical stability Faster convergence Unique structure allows the dynamic assignment of the most effective length
Disadvantages
The structure is more complicated
Nonlinear Equalization Used in applications where the channel distortion is too severe Three effective methods
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE)
Nonlinear Equalization--DFE
Basic idea : once an information symbol has been detected and decided upon, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and substracted out before detection of subsequent symbols Can be realized in either the direct transversal form or as a lattice filter
* k = C n y k n + Fi d k i d N2 N3 n = N 1 i =1
E e(n)
min
No T T = exp{ ln[ ]d} 2 2 T F( e jT ) + N o
DFE
Predictive DFE
Predictive DFE (proposed by Belfiore and Park) Consists of an FFF and an FBF, the latter is called a noise predictor Predictive DFE performs as well as conventional DFE as the limit in the number of taps in FFF and the FBF approach infinity The FBF in predictive DFE can also be realized as a lattice structure The RLS algorithm can be used to yield fast
Predictive DFE
MLSE
MLSE tests all possible data sequences (rather than decoding each received symbol by itself ), and chooses the data sequence with the maximum probability as the output Usually has a large computational requirement First proposed by Forney using a basic MLSE estimator structure and implementing it with the Viterbi algorithm
MLSE
MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order to compute the matrics for making decisions MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the noise corrupting the signal
MLSE

Performance measures for algorithm Rate of convergence Misadjustment Computational complexity Numerical properties an

Factors dominate the choice of an equalization structure and its algorithm The cost of computing platform The power budget The radio propagation characteristics

The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel fading rate and the Doppler spread, which is related to the coherent time of the channel directly The choice of algorithm, and its corresponding rate of convergence, depends on the channel data rate and coherent time The number of taps used in the equalizer design depends on the maximum expected time delay spread of the channel

The circuit complexity and processing time increases with the number of taps and delay elements Three classic equalizer algorithms : zero forcing (ZF), least mean squares (LMS), and recursive least squares (RLS) algorithms
Zero forcing (ZF) Algorithm

The equalizer coefficients are chosen to force the combined channel and the equalizer response to zero at all but one of the NT spaced sample points. The impulse Response of the equalizer is the inverse of the Channel Hch (f) Heq (f) = 1, | f| < 1/2T By letting the length of the equalizer to infinity , zero ISI at the output is obtained.
Example
Y(k)= 0.0,0.1,1.0,-0.2,0.1 use ZF and find the tap weights for 3 tap equalizer.
Yk D C-1 C0 D C1
dK
ZF
X(0) x(-1) x(-2) X(1) x(0) x(-1) X(2) x(1) x(0)
-1 1.0 0.1 0.0 0 1 0 C1 = C-1 C0 C1 = 0 1 0
C-1 C0
-0.2 1.0 0.1 0.1 -.02 1.0
Solving C-1 =-0.096, C0=0.96, C1=0.2

Find the equalized output for sampling instants of 2
d2 = c-1y3 + c0y2 +c1 y1 = -0.096x0 + 0.96x0.1+0.2x-0.2 = 0.056
d-2 = c-1y-1 + c0y-2 +c1 y-3 = -0.096 x 0.1 + 0.96 x 0 +0.2x0 = -0.0096
Error signal where
T T ek =xk yk =xk k yk k
Least Mean Square Algorithm

yk 1 yk 2 ....
yk =[ yk
yk N ]
k = [k
k 1
k 2
....
k N ]
Mean square error ek
2 T T T = xk + yk yk 2 xk yk k k k
Expected MSE =E e k where
] =E[x ] + R2p
2 k T
Derivation
2 yk yk 1 yk =E .... yk N yk
R = E yk y* k
yk yk 1 2 yk 1 .... yk N yk 1
yk yk 2 yk 1 yk 2 .... yk N yk 2
.... yk yk N .... yk 1 yk N .... .... 2 .... yk N

T
p = E[ xk yk ] = E[ xk yk
xk yk 1
xk yk 2 .... xk yk N ]
Least Mean Square Algorithm

LMS is computed iteratively by dk(n) =WnT(n)YN(n) e(n )= xk(n)-dk(n) WN(n+1) = WN(n) - e*k(n) YN(n) 0 < < 2 / I I = Y N(n) YNT (n)
Summary of algorithms
Diversity Techniques
Requires no training overhead Can provides significant link improvement with little added cost Diversity decisions are made by the Rx, and are unknown to the Tx
Diversity Techniques
Diversity concept If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong signal By having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may be improved, often by as much as 20 dB to 30 dB Diversity order How many independent copies How many links to bring down the system
Diversity Example

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Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding

Equalization, Diversity, Channel Coding

Equalization compensates for ISI created by

Equalization, Diversity, Channel Coding

Diversity also compensates for fading

y(t) = x(t) f (t) + n (t) b

(t ) heq (t ) +mb (t ) heq (t )

Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer

Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer

Minimize Estimation Error

Error signal where

Mean square error ek

Expected MSE =E e k where

.... yk yk N .... yk 1 yk N .... .... 2 .... yk N

Minimizing the MSE tends to reduce the bit error rate

Training Sequence then Data transmission within each frame

Linear transversal equalizer

ARMA Model (FIR, IIR)

Linear Transversal Equalizer

Linear Transversal Equalizer

:frequency response of the channel

:noise spectral density

Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Zero forcing (ZF) Algorithm

-0.2 1.0 0.1 0.1 -.02 1.0

Solving C-1 =-0.096, C0=0.96, C1=0.2

Characteristics of Lattice Filter Advantages

No T T = exp{ ln[ ]d} 2 2 T F( e jT ) + N o

Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Zero forcing (ZF) Algorithm

-0.2 1.0 0.1 0.1 -.02 1.0

Solving C-1 =-0.096, C0=0.96, C1=0.2

Error signal where

Least Mean Square Algorithm

Mean square error ek

Expected MSE =E e k where

.... yk yk N .... yk 1 yk N .... .... 2 .... yk N

Least Mean Square Algorithm

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