Clark y Chalmers - La Mente Extendida
Clark y Chalmers - La Mente Extendida
Clark y Chalmers - La Mente Extendida
(Problemas de Metafísica)
la mente extendida
INTRODUCCIÓN
¿Dónde acaba la mente y dónde empieza el resto del mundo? la pregunta invi-
ta a dos respuestas típicas. Algunas personas aceptan las demarcaciones de la piel,
y el cráneo, y afirman que lo que se halla fuera del cuerpo está también fuera de la
mente. Otros sin embargo se inclinan por el argumento de que los significados de
las palabras “simplemente no están en la cabeza” y sostienen este externalismo del
significado, extendiéndolo a toda la mente. Nosotros queremos proponer una ter-
cera posición. Abogamos por un tipo diferente de externalismo: un externalismo
activo, basado en el papel activo que el entorno tiene en la consecución de los pro-
cesos cognitivos.
COGNICIÓN EXTENDIDA
1. Una persona está sentada frente a una pantalla de ordenador que exhibe imá-
genes de diversas formas bidimensionales y se le pide que responda a pre-
guntas sobre si encajan esas formas en una configuración que aparece dibuja-
da. Para poder establecer ese encaje, la persona debe rotar mentalmente las
formas y alinearlas con sus conexiones.
2. Una persona está sentada delante de una pantalla de ordenador similar, pero
esta vez puede escoger entre rotar físicamente la imagen en la pantalla, pre-
sionando un botón de rotación, o hacerlo mentalmente como antes. Podemos
* Este artículo fue publicado en 1998 en la revista Analysis (58: 10-23). David J. Chalmers es investi-
gador del Departamento de Filosofía de la Universidad de Washington y Andy Clarck es profesor de la
Universidad de Arizona.
también suponer, con bastante verosimilitud, que habrá cierta ventaja de velo-
cidad en la operación de rotación física.
3. En algún momento de un futuro ciberpunk, una persona está sentada frente a
la pantalla del ordenador. Esta persona, sin embargo, disfruta de un implante
neuronal que puede llevar a cabo la operación de rotación tan rápidamente
como el ordenador del ejemplo anterior. Este agente debe de todos modos
escoger qué recurso interno usar (el implante o la vieja y eficaz rotación men-
tal), pues cada uno de estos recursos demandan diferente atención y otras acti-
vidades cerebrales concurrentes.
¿Cuán presente está la cognición en estos casos? sugerimos nosotros que los tres
casos son similares. El caso 3 del implante neurológico parece alinearse con el caso
1. Y el caso 2, del botón de rotación en el ordenador, parece mostrar el mismo tipo
de tecnología computacional del caso 3, aunque la distribución del dispositivo entre
el sujeto y el ordenador, es diferente cuando está internalizado dentro del sujeto. si
la rotación en el caso 3 es cognitiva, ¿cómo podemos considerar el caso 2 como dife-
rente a éste? No podemos simplemente señalar la piel o el cráneo como límite cog-
nitivo para justificarnos, pues la legitimidad de ese límite está precisamente en cues-
tión. Pero en todo lo demás parecen casos similares.
El tipo de caso que acabamos de describir no es en absoluto exótico como
pudiera parecer. No es la presencia de los recursos avanzados digitales lo que ha
suscitado este debate, sino más bien la tendencia de los seres humanos razonado-
res a depender profundamente de soportes ambientales. Así, consideremos el uso
de un bolígrafo y de un papel para desarrollar una larga multiplicación
(mcClelland et al. 1986, Clarck 1989), el uso de reconfiguraciones de piezas físi-
cas con letras para activar la memoria léxica en el juego scrabble (kirsh 1995), el
uso de instrumentos como la brújula naútica (hutchins 1995) y la parafernalia
general del lenguaje, los libros, los diagramas, y la cultura. En todos estos casos
el cerebro individual lleva a cabo diferentes operaciones, algunas de las cuales se
delegan a manipulaciones de medios externos. si nuestros cerebros fueran dife-
rentes, la distribución de tareas sin duda sería diversa.
De hecho, incluso los ejemplos de rotación mental descritos en los escenarios 1
y 2 son reales. Ambos reflejan opciones disponibles para los jugadores del juego de
ordenador Tetris. En el Tetris, el descenso de formas geométricas debe dirigirse con
rapidez hacia el lugar apropiado de una estructura de huecos que va emergiendo. Un
botón de rotación se usa a este efecto. David kirsh y Paul maglio (1994), calculan
que la rotación física de la forma en 90 grados se realiza en 100 milisegundos, suma-
dos a los 200 milisegundos que precisa la selección del botón. Para conseguir el
mismo resultado en una rotación mental tardaríamos unos 1000 milisegundos. kirsh
y maglio continúan, presentando una evidencia arrolladora de cómo la rotación físi-
ca no se usa simplemente para colocar la pieza en el lugar idóneo que rellene un
hueco, sino para ayudar a determinar si la forma y el hueco son compatibles. Este
uso constituye un caso de lo que kirsh y maglio denominan una “acción epistémi-
ca”. las acciones epistémicas alteran o actúan en el mundo para ayudar y aumentar
procesos cognitivos como el reconocimiento y la búsqueda. las acciones meramen-
EL EXTERNALISMO ACTIVO
1 la atracción que experimenta el externalismo de la mente en Filosofía puede provenir del atractivo
intuitivo del externalismo activo. los externalistas a menudo hacen analogías con sistemas pareados que
implican factores externos, y apelan a la arbitrariedad de los límites entre cerebro y entorno. Pero estas intui-
ciones encajan mal con la teoría estricta del externalismo típico. En la mayoría de los ejemplos de Putnam y
Burge, el entorno inmediato es irrelevante; solamente cuenta el entorno o contexto histórico. El debate se cen-
tró siempre en la cuestión de si la mente está dentro de la cabeza, pero quizás sea más relevante otra cues-
tión relacionada con estos ejemplos, como es: ¿pero está la mente en el presente?
2 herbert simon (1981) sugería una vez que consideráramos la memoria interna como, en efecto, una
fuente externa sobre la que operan procesos “realmente” internos. “la búsqueda memorística”, argumenta,
“no es muy diferente a la búsqueda en el entorno externo”. la idea de simon tiene al menos la virtud de tra-
tar los procesos internos y externos con la paridad que merecen, pero sospechamos que en ella la mente se
queda muy pequeña para la mayoría de los gustos humanos.
3 Teorías filosóficas de un similar espíritu se hallarán en haugeland 1995, mcClamrock 1985, Varela
et al. 1991 y Wilson 1994.
4 O considérese el siguiente pasaje de una novela reciente de ciencia ficción (mchugh 1992: 213): “soy
conducido al departamento de sistemas donde me conectan con el mismo. Todo lo que hago es conectarme y
entonces el técnico instruye al sistema para que se adapte, y así lo hace. me desconecto y pregunto la hora.
las 10 y 52. Aparece la información. siempre antes de que pueda acceder a ella cuando estoy conectado,
tengo la impresión de que sabía lo que iba a pensar y lo que el sistema me iba a decir, pero ahora, ¿cómo sé
lo que es el sistema y lo que es Zhang?”
para usarse en la conformación de las rutinas cognitivas más obvias. Donde las ale-
tas del pez crean turbulencias y vórtices que luego aprovechará en el nado, nosotros
intervenimos en múltiples medios lingüísticos, creando estructuras locales y turbu-
lencias cuya fiable presencia conduce nuestros procesos internos en curso. las pala-
bras y los símbolos externos son por tanto miembros de pleno derecho entre los vór-
tices cognitivos que nos ayudan a constituir el pensamiento humano.
DE LA COGNICIÓN A LA MENTE
tátil funciona igual que la información que forma parte de una creencia ordinaria no
presente; la diferencia está en que esa información está más allá de la piel.
la alternativa es afirmar que Otto no tiene creencia hasta que no consulta su
ordenador; como mucho, cree que el museo está ubicado en la dirección que el orde-
nador le indicará. Pero si seguimos a Otto durante algún tiempo, veremos lo antina-
tural que es esta manera de hablar. Otto usa constantemente su notebook para todos
los asuntos. Es central en sus acciones en todo tipo de contextos, del mismo modo
que la memoria ordinaria es central en la vida cotidiana. la misma información
puede recuperarse una y otra vez, quizás modificándose ligeramente para cada oca-
sión, antes de volverse a guardar en los fondos de su memoria artificial. Decir que
las creencias desaparecen cuando se cierra el ordenador parece igual de equivocado
que afirmar que las creencias de Inga desaparecen en cuando no es ya consciente de
ellas. En ambos casos la información es fiable cuando se necesita de ella, disponible
para la consciencia y disponible para guiar la acción, del mismo modo en que espe-
ramos que lo sea una creencia.
Ciertamente, en tanto las creencias y los deseos están caracterizados por su papel
explicativo, los ejemplos de Otto y de Inga parecen ser análogos: la misma causali-
dad dinámica esencial en los dos casos los hace idénticos. Nos satisface explicar la
acción de Inga en términos de su deseo presente de ir al museo y su creencia sólida
en que el museo está en la calle 53, y también nos convence explicar la acción de
Otto del mismo modo. la alternativa es explicar las acciones de Otto en términos de
su deseo presente de ir al museo, su creencia sólida en que el museo está en la direc-
ción que está escrita en su portátil, y el hecho accesible de que el portátil afirma que
el museo está en la calle 53; pero esto complica la explicación innecesariamente. si
tenemos que recurrir a explicar la acción de Otto de esta manera, entonces debemos
hacer lo mismo con el infinito número de acciones en las que utiliza el ordenador
igualmente; en cada una de las explicaciones, existirá un término extra relacionado
con el portátil. Creemos que explicar las cosas de este modo es llevarlas demasiado
lejos. Es innecesariamente complejo, del mismo modo en que es innecesariamente
complejo explicar las acciones de Inga en términos de creencias sobre su memoria.
El ordenador es una constante para Otto, del mismo modo que la memoria es una
constante para Inga; si lo señalamos para explicar cada creencia/deseo será redun-
dante. En una explicación, la sencillez es poder.
si esto es cierto, podemos incluso construir el caso de un Otto gemelo, que es
justamente igual que Otto excepto en que hace algún tiempo escribió en su ordena-
dor erróneamente que el museo de Arte moderno estaba en la calle 51. hoy, el Otto
gemelo es un duplicado físico del otro, de piel para dentro, pero su portátil difiere.
Consecuentemente, el Otto gemelo puede describirse con la creencia de que el
museo está en la calle 51, mientras que Otto cree que está en la 53. En estos casos,
la creencia no está simplemente en la cabeza.
se trata de una conclusión idéntica a la de Putnam y Burge, pero de nuevo exis-
ten importantes diferencias. En el caso de Putnam y Burge, los factores externos que
constituyen diferencias en la creencia, son distales e históricos, de modo que los
gemelos en esos casos producen físicamente conductas no distinguibles entre sí. En
los casos que describimos nosotros, los factores externos relevantes tienen un papel
5 En la terminología de Chalmers “los componentes del contenido” (léase): los gemelos en el caso de
Putnam y Burge, difieren solamente en su contenido relacional, pero Otto y su gemelo difieren claramente
en su contenido nocional, que es el tipo de contenido que gobierna la cognición. El contenido nocional es
generalmente interno a un sistema cognitivo, pero en este caso el sistema cognitivo se ha extendido efecti-
vamente para incluir un ordenador en él.
Estas variadas pequeñas diferencias entre los casos de Otto y de Inga son todas
ellas superficiales. Fijarse en ellas sería perder el modo como para Otto, las entra-
das de su notebook tienen justamente el mismo papel que las creencias juegan en la
guía de la mayoría de las vidas de la gente.
Quizás la intuición de que para Otto no se trata de una creencia verdaderamen-
te proviene de un sentimiento residual de que las únicas creencias verdaderas son las
que están presentes. si tomamos este sentimiento en serio, tampoco la creencia de
Inga sería auténtica, como muchas de las creencias que tenemos cada día. Ello sería
una forma extrema, pero sin duda la más convincente, de negar la creencia de Otto.
Incluso en una perspectiva menos extrema, la de que una creencia debe estar dispo-
nible para la consciencia, por ejemplo, las entradas del portátil de Otto encajan tan
correctamente como los recuerdos de Inga. Una vez que aceptamos las creencias dis-
ponibles, es difícil resistirse a la conclusión de que el notebook de Otto tiene toda la
disponibilidad relevante.
si esta tesis se acepta, ¿hasta dónde la llevaremos? se nos plantean todo tipo de
casos paradójicos. ¿Qué pasaría con los pueblerinos amnésicos de Cien años de sole-
dad, que olvidaban los nombres de todo y por ello colocaban etiquetas a todo? ¿Y la
información en mi Filofax, cuenta como parte de mi memoria? si el notebook de
Otto es manipulado, ¿creerá en la información que se instale en él? ¿Creo yo en los
contenidos de la página que tengo delante conforme la leo? ¿se expande mi estado
cognitivo de algún modo en Internet?
No pensamos que haya respuestas categóricas a todas estas preguntas, y no las
vamos a dar. Pero para ayudar a comprender lo que implica la asignación de cre-
encias extendidas, podemos al menos examinar los rasgos de nuestro caso central
que nos hizo aplicar la noción con tanta facilidad. Primero, el portátil es una cons-
tante en la vida de Otto, en las situaciones en que la información que contiene sea
relevante, él rara vez emprendería una acción sin consultarlo previamente. En
segundo lugar, la información en el ordenador está directamente disponible sin
dificultad. Tercero, al recuperar información del mismo automáticamente él la
asume. Cuarto, la información del ordenador ha sido asumida conscientemente en
algún momento del pasado, y sin duda está ahí como consecuencia de dicha incor-
poración6. El estatus del cuarto rasgo como criterio para la creencia es discutible
(¿quizá podemos adquirir creencias mediante la percepción subliminal, o median-
te la manipulación de la memoria?) pero los tres primeros ciertamente tienen un
papel crucial.
6 la constancia del criterio de la incorporación en el pasado puede sugerir que la historia es en parte
constitutiva de la creencia. Puede reaccionarse a esto eliminando cualquier componente histórico (dando al
criterio de la constancia una lectura puramente disposicional y eliminando el criterio de la incorporación
pasada, por ejemplo), o bien puede permitirse dicho componente siempre que la carga esencial la tengan los
factores del presente.
7 Citado del New York Times del 30 de marzo de 1995, p. B7 en un artículo sobre un antiguo entrenador
de baloncesto de UClA John Wooden: “Wooden y su mujer asistieron a los Cuartos de Final del 36, y ella le
servía de banco de memoria. Nell Wooden rara vez olvidaba un nombre, y su marido rara vez lo recordaba,
así que en los pasillos de la final, ella reconocía a la gente para él”.
8 ¿Puede este tipo de razonamiento permitir algo como la “artritis” de las creencias de Burge? Después
de todo, siempre puedo desviar a mi médico las acciones relevantes que emprender de acuerdo con mi enfer-
medad. Puede ser, pero hay algunas diferencias claras. Por ejemplo, cualquier creencia extendida debe basar-
se en una relación activa existente con el médico, más que en una relación histórica con una comunidad lin-
güística. Y en el análisis actual, mi delegación en el médico tenderá a depositar en él algo similar a una cre-
encia auténtica de que tengo alguna otra enfermedad en mi muslo, y no la falsa creencia de que padezco artri-
tis ahí. Por otra parte, si uso a expertos médicos solamente como consultores terminológicos, los resultados
del análisis de Burge pueden repetirse.
REfERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁfICAS
RESUMEN
¿Dónde acaba la mente y dónde empieza el resto del mundo?. la pregunta invita a dos respuestas típi-
cas. Algunas personas aceptan las demarcaciones de la piel, y el cráneo, y afirman que lo que se halla
fuera del cuerpo está también fuera de la mente. Otros sin embargo se inclinan por el argumento de que
los significados de las palabras “simplemente no están en la cabeza” y sostienen este externalismo del
significado, extendiéndolo a toda la mente. Nosotros queremos proponer una tercera posición.
Abogamos por un tipo diferente de externalismo: un externalismo activo, basado en el papel activo que
el entorno tiene en la consecución de los procesos cognitivos.
Palabras clave: mente extendida, cognición, externalismo, tecnologías, mente distribuida
ABSTRACT
Where does the mind stop and the rest of the world begin? The question invites two standard replies.
some accept the intuitive demarcations of skin and skull, and say that what is outside the body is out-
side the mind. Others are impressed by the arguments of Putnam and Burge that the truth-conditions of
our thoughts “just ain’t in the head”,[* and hold that this externalism about meaning carries over into
an externalism about mind. We propose to pursue a third position. We will advocate an externalism
about mind, but one that is in no way grounded in the debatable role of truth-conditions and reference
in fixing the contents of our mental states. rather, we advocate an active externalism, based on the
active role of the environment in driving cognitive processes.
Key words: Extended mind, distributed mind, cognition, technologies, externalism.
RÉSUMÉE
Oú commence la pensée et oú le reste du monde? la question nous invite à deux réponses communes.
Quelques uns acceptent les démarcations intuitives de la peau et le crâne, en affirmant que ce que on
voit dehors du corps est aussi dehors de la pensée. Des autres sont frappés par les arguments de hillary
Putnam et de Burge sur les conditions de vérité de notres pensées, que ne “sont pas dans la tête”, et
soutiennent que cet externalisme du sens implique l’externalisme de la pensée. Nous proposons une
troisième position, à faveur du externalisme de la pensée, mais pas fondé sur la discussion des condi-
tions de vérité et de la rëference dans la fixation des états mentaux. Au fait nous proposons un exter-
nalisme actif, fondé dans le rôle actif du environnement dans la direction des procès cognitifs.
Mots clé: Externalisme, pensée extendue, cognition, technologies, distribution de la pensée.
1 Introduction
Where does the mind stop and the rest of the world begin? The question invites two
standard replies. Some accept the demarcations of skin and skull, and say that what is
outside the body is outside the mind. Others are impressed by arguments suggesting that
the meaning of our words "just ain't in the head", and hold that this externalism about
meaning carries over into an externalism about mind. We propose to pursue a third
position. We advocate a very different sort of externalism: an /active externalism/, based
on the active role of the environment in driving cognitive processes.
2 Extended Cognition
(1) A person sits in front of a computer screen which displays images of various two-
dimensional geometric shapes and is asked to answer questions concerning the potential
fit of such shapes into depicted "sockets". To assess fit, the person must mentally rotate
the shapes to align them with the sockets.
(2) A person sits in front of a similar computer screen, but this time can choose
either to physically rotate the image on the screen, by pressing a rotate button, or to
mentally rotate the image as before. We can also suppose, not unrealistically, that some
speed advantage accrues to the physical rotation operation.
(3) Sometime in the cyberpunk future, a person sits in front of a similar computer
screen. This agent, however, has the benefit of a neural implant which can perform the
rotation operation as fast as the computer in the previous example. The agent must still
choose which internal resource to use (the implant or the good old fashioned mental
rotation), as each resource makes different demands on attention and other concurrent
brain activity.
How much /cognition/ is present in these cases? We suggest that all three cases are
similar. Case (3) with the neural implant seems clearly to be on a par with case (1). And
case (2) with the rotation button displays the same sort of computational structure as
case (3), although it is distributed across agent and computer instead of internalized
within the agent. If the rotation in case (3) is cognitive, by what right do we count case
(2) as fundamentally different? We cannot simply point to the skin/skull boundary as
justification, since the legitimacy of that boundary is precisely what is at issue. But
nothing else seems different.
The kind of case just described is by no means as exotic as it may at first appear. It is
not just the presence of advanced external computing resources which raises the issue,
but rather the general tendency of human reasoners to lean heavily on environmental
supports. Thus consider the use of pen and paper to perform long multiplication
(McClelland et al 1986, Clark 1989), the use of physical re-arrangements of letter tiles
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to prompt word recall in Scrabble (Kirsh 1995), the use of instruments such as the
nautical slide rule (Hutchins 1995), and the general paraphernalia of language, books,
diagrams, and culture. In all these cases the individual brain performs some operations,
while others are delegated to manipulations of external media. Had our brains been
different, this distribution of tasks would doubtless have varied.
In fact, even the mental rotation cases described in scenarios (1) and (2) are real. The
cases reflect options available to players of the computer game Tetris. In Tetris, falling
geometric shapes must be rapidly directed into an appropriate slot in an emerging
structure. A rotation button can be used. David Kirsh and Paul Maglio (1994) calculate
that the physical rotation of a shape through 90 degrees takes about 100 milliseconds,
plus about 200 milliseconds to select the button. To achieve the same result by mental
rotation takes about 1000 milliseconds. Kirsh and Maglio go on to present compelling
evidence that physical rotation is used not just to position a shape ready to fit a slot, but
often to help /determine/ whether the shape and the slot are compatible. The latter use
constitutes a case of what Kirsh and Maglio call an 'epistemic action'. /Epistemic/
actions alter the world so as to aid and augment cognitive processes such as recognition
and search. Merely /pragmatic/ actions, by contrast, alter the world because some
physical change is desirable for its own sake (e.g., putting cement into a hole in a dam).
3 Active Externalism
In these cases, the human organism is linked with an external entity in a two-way
interaction, creating a /coupled system/ that can be seen as a cognitive system in its own
right. All the components in the system play an active causal role, and they jointly
govern behavior in the same sort of way that cognition usually does. If we remove the
external component the system's behavioral competence will drop, just as it would if we
removed part of its brain. Our thesis is that this sort of coupled process counts equally
well as a cognitive process, whether or not it is wholly in the head.
This externalism differs greatly from standard variety advocated by Putnam (1975) and
Burge (1979). When I believe that water is wet and my twin believes that twin water is
wet, the external features responsible for the difference in our beliefs are distal and
historical, at the other end of a lengthy causal chain. Features of the /present/ are not
relevant: if I happen to be surrounded by XYZ right now (maybe I have teleported to
Twin Earth), my beliefs still concern standard water, because of my history. In these
cases, the relevant external features are /passive/. Because of their distal nature, they
play no role in driving the cognitive process in the here-and-now. This is reflected by
the fact that the actions performed by me and my twin are physically indistinguishable,
despite our external differences.
In the cases we describe, by contrast, the relevant external features are /active/, playing
a crucial role in the here-and-now. Because they are coupled with the human organism,
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they have a direct impact on the organism and on its behavior. In these cases, the
relevant parts of the world are /in the loop/, not dangling at the other end of a long
causal chain. Concentrating on this sort of coupling leads us to an /active externalism/,
as opposed to the passive externalism of Putnam and Burge.
Many have complained that even if Putnam and Burge are right about the externality of
content, it is not clear that these external aspects play a causal or explanatory role in the
generation of action. In counterfactual cases where internal structure is held constant but
these external features are changed, behavior looks just the same; so internal structure
seems to be doing the crucial work. We will not adjudicate that issue here, but we note
that active externalism is not threatened by any such problem. The external features in a
coupled system play an ineliminable role - if we retain internal structure but change the
external features, behavior may change completely. The external features here are just
as causally relevant as typical internal features of the brain.[*]
*[[Much of the appeal of externalism in the philosophy of mind may stem from the
intuitive appeal of active externalism. Externalists often make analogies involving
external features in coupled systems, and appeal to the arbitrariness of boundaries
between brain and environment. But these intuitions sit uneasily with the letter of
standard externalism. In most of the Putnam/Burge cases, the immediate environment is
irrelevant; only the historical environment counts. Debate has focused on the question
of whether mind must be in the head, but a more relevant question in assessing these
examples might be: is mind in the present?]]
*[[Herbert Simon (1981) once suggested that we view internal memory as, in effect, an
external resource upon which "real" inner processes operate. "Search in memory," he
comments, "is not very different from search of the external environment." Simon's
view at least has the virtue of treating internal and external processing with the parity
they deserve, but we suspect that on his view the mind will shrink too small for most
people's tastes. ]]
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methods that might once have been thought appropriate only for the analysis of "inner"
processes are now being adapted for the study of the outer, and there is promise that our
understanding of cognition will become richer for it.
Some find this sort of externalism unpalatable. One reason may be that many identify
the cognitive with the conscious, and it seems far from plausible that consciousness
extends outside the head in these cases. But not every cognitive process, at least on
standard usage, is a conscious process. It is widely accepted that all sorts of processes
beyond the borders of consciousness play a crucial role in cognitive processing: in the
retrieval of memories, linguistic processes, and skill acquisition, for example. So the
mere fact that external processes are external where consciousness is internal is no
reason to deny that those processes are cognitive.
More interestingly, one might argue that what keeps real cognition processes in the head
is the requirement that cognitive processes be /portable/. Here, we are moved by a
vision of what might be called the Naked Mind: a package of resources and operations
we can always bring to bear on a cognitive task, regardless of the local environment. On
this view, the trouble with coupled systems is that they are too easily /decoupled/. The
true cognitive processes are those that lie at the constant core of the system; anything
else is an add-on extra.
There is something to this objection. The brain (or brain and body) comprises a package
of basic, portable, cognitive resources that is of interest in its own right. These resources
may incorporate bodily actions into cognitive processes, as when we use our fingers as
working memory in a tricky calculation, but they will not encompass the more
contingent aspects of our external environment, such as a pocket calculator. Still, mere
contingency of coupling does not rule out cognitive status. In the distant future we may
be able to plug various modules into our brain to help us out: a module for extra short-
term memory when we need it, for example. When a module is plugged in, the
processes involving it are just as cognitive as if they had been there all along.[*]
*[[Or consider the following passage from a recent science fiction novel (McHugh
1992, p. 213): "I am taken to the system's department where I am attuned to the system.
All I do is jack in and then a technician instructs the system to attune and it does. I jack
out and query the time. 10:52. The information pops up. Always before I could only
access information when I was jacked in, it gave me a sense that I knew what I thought
and what the system told me, but now, how do I know what is system and what is
Zhang?"]]
Even if one were to make the portability criterion pivotal, active externalism would not
be undermined. Counting on our fingers has already been let in the door, for example,
and it is easy to push things further. Think of the old image of the engineer with a slide
rule hanging from his belt wherever he goes. What if people always carried a pocket
calculator, or had them implanted? The real moral of the portability intuition is that for
coupled systems to be relevant to the core of cognition, /reliable/ coupling is required. It
happens that most reliable coupling takes place within the brain, but there can easily be
reliable coupling with the environment as well. If the resources of my calculator or my
Filofax are always there when I need them, then they are coupled with me as reliably as
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we need. In effect, they are part of the basic package of cognitive resources that I bring
to bear on the everyday world. These systems cannot be impugned simply on the basis
of the danger of discrete damage, loss, or malfunction, or because of any occasional
decoupling: the biological brain is in similar danger, and occasionally loses capacities
temporarily in episodes of sleep, intoxication, and emotion. If the relevant capacities are
generally there when they are required, this is coupling enough.
Moreover, it may be that the biological brain has in fact evolved and matured in ways
which factor in the reliable presence of a manipulable external environment. It certainly
seems that evolution has favored on-board capacities which are especially geared to
parasitizing the local environment so as to reduce memory load, and even to transform
the nature of the computational problems themselves. Our visual systems have evolved
to rely on their environment in various ways: they exploit contingent facts about the
structure of natural scenes (e.g. Ullman and Richards 1984), for example, and they take
advantage of the computational shortcuts afforded by bodily motion and locomotion
(e.g. Blake and Yuille, 1992). Perhaps there are other cases where evolution has found it
advantageous to exploit the possibility of the environment being in the cognitive loop. If
so, then external coupling is part of the truly basic package of cognitive resources that
we bring to bear on the world.
Within the lifetime of an organism, too, individual learning may have molded the brain
in ways that rely on cognitive extensions that surrounded us as we learned. Language is
again a central example here, as are the various physical and computational artifacts that
are routinely used as cognitive extensions by children in schools and by trainees in
numerous professions. In such cases the brain develops in a way that complements the
external structures, and learns to play its role within a unified, densely coupled system.
Once we recognize the crucial role of the environment in constraining the evolution and
development of cognition, we see that extended cognition is a core cognitive process,
not an add-on extra.
Now consider a reliable feature of the human environment, such as the sea of words.
This linguistic surround envelopes us from birth. Under such conditions, the plastic
human brain will surely come to treat such structures as a reliable resource to be
factored into the shaping of on-board cognitive routines. Where the fish flaps its tail to
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set up the eddies and vortices it subsequently exploits, we intervene in multiple
linguistic media, creating local structures and disturbances whose reliable presence
drives our ongoing internal processes. Words and external symbols are thus paramount
among the cognitive vortices which help constitute human thought.
So far we have spoken largely about "cognitive processing", and argued for its
extension into the environment. Some might think that the conclusion has been bought
too cheaply. Perhaps some /processing/ takes place in the environment, but what of
/mind/? Everything we have said so far is compatible with the view that truly mental
states - experiences, beliefs, desires, emotions, and so on - are all determined by states
of the brain. Perhaps what is truly mental is internal, after all?
We propose to take things a step further. While some mental states, such as experiences,
may be determined internally, there are other cases in which external factors make a
significant contribution. In particular, we will argue that /beliefs/ can be constituted
partly by features of the environment, when those features play the right sort of role in
driving cognitive processes. If so, the mind extends into the world.
First, consider a normal case of belief embedded in memory. Inga hears from a friend
that there is an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, and decides to go see it. She
thinks for a moment and recalls that the museum is on 53rd Street, so she walks to 53rd
Street and goes into the museum. It seems clear that Inga believes that the museum is on
53rd Street, and that she believed this even before she consulted her memory. It was not
previously an /occurrent/ belief, but then neither are most of our beliefs. The belief was
sitting somewhere in memory, waiting to be accessed.
Now consider Otto. Otto suffers from Alzheimer's disease, and like many Alzheimer's
patients, he relies on information in the environment to help structure his life. Otto
carries a notebook around with him everywhere he goes. When he learns new
information, he writes it down. When he needs some old information, he looks it up. For
Otto, his notebook plays the role usually played by a biological memory. Today, Otto
hears about the exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, and decides to go see it. He
consults the notebook, which says that the museum is on 53 rd Street, so he walks to 53
rd Street and goes into the museum.
Clearly, Otto walked to 53rd Street because he wanted to go to the museum and he
believed the museum was on 53rd Street. And just as Inga had her belief even before
she consulted her memory, it seems reasonable to say that Otto believed the museum
was on 53rd Street even before consulting his notebook. For in relevant respects the
cases are entirely analogous: the notebook plays for Otto the same role that memory
plays for Inga. The information in the notebook functions just like the information
constituting an ordinary non-occurrent belief; it just happens that this information lies
beyond the skin.
The alternative is to say that Otto has no belief about the matter until he consults his
notebook; at best, he believes that the museum is located at the address in the notebook.
But if we follow Otto around for a while, we will see how unnatural this way of
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speaking is. Otto is constantly using his notebook as a matter of course. It is central to
his actions in all sorts of contexts, in the way that an ordinary memory is central in an
ordinary life. The same information might come up again and again, perhaps being
slightly modified on occasion, before retreating into the recesses of his artificial
memory. To say that the beliefs disappear when the notebook is filed away seems to
miss the big picture in just the same way as saying that Inga's beliefs disappear as soon
as she is no longer conscious of them. In both cases the information is reliably there
when needed, available to consciousness and available to guide action, in just the way
that we expect a belief to be.
Certainly, insofar as beliefs and desires are characterized by their explanatory roles,
Otto's and Inga's cases seem to be on a par: the essential causal dynamics of the two
cases mirror each other precisely. We are happy to explain Inga's action in terms of her
occurrent desire to go to the museum and her standing belief that the museum is on 53rd
street, and we should be happy to explain Otto's action in the same way. The alternative
is to explain Otto's action in terms of his occurrent desire to go to the museum, his
standing belief that the Museum is on the location written in the notebook, and the
accessible fact that the notebook says the Museum is on 53rd Street; but this
complicates the explanation unnecessarily. If we must resort to explaining Otto's action
this way, then we must also do so for the countless other actions in which his notebook
is involved; in each of the explanations, there will be an extra term involving the
notebook. We submit that to explain things this way is to take /one step too many/. It is
pointlessly complex, in the same way that it would be pointlessly complex to explain
Inga's actions in terms of beliefs about her memory. The notebook is a constant for Otto,
in the same way that memory is a constant for Inga; to point to it in every belief/desire
explanation would be redundant. In an explanation, simplicity is power.
If this is right, we can even construct the case of Twin Otto, who is just like Otto except
that a while ago he mistakenly wrote in his notebook that the Museum of Modern Art
was on 51st Street. Today, Twin Otto is a physical duplicate of Otto from the skin in,
but his notebook differs. Consequently, Twin Otto is best characterized as believing that
the museum is on 51st Street, where Otto believes it is on 53rd. In these cases, a belief
is simply not in the head.
This mirrors the conclusion of Putnam and Burge, but again there are important
differences. In the Putnam/Burge cases, the external features constituting differences in
belief are distal and historical, so that twins in these cases produce physically
indistinguishable behavior. In the cases we are describing, the relevant external features
play an active role in the here-and-now, and have a direct impact on behavior. Where
Otto walks to 53 rd Street, Twin Otto walks to 51st. There is no question of explanatory
irrelevance for this sort of external belief content; it is introduced precisely because of
the central explanatory role that it plays. Like the Putnam and Burge cases, these cases
involve differences in reference and truth-conditions, but they also involve differences
in the dynamics of /cognition/.[*]
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The moral is that when it comes to belief, there is nothing sacred about skull and skin.
What makes some information count as a belief is the role it plays, and there is no
reason why the relevant role can be played only from inside the body.
Some will resist this conclusion. An opponent might put her foot down and insist that as
she uses the term "belief", or perhaps even according to standard usage, Otto simply
does not qualify as believing that the museum is on 53rd Street. We do not intend to
debate what is standard usage; our broader point is that the notion of belief /ought/ to be
used so that Otto qualifies as having the belief in question. In all /important/ respects,
Otto's case is similar to a standard case of (non-occurrent) belief. The differences
between Otto's case and Inga's are striking, but they are superficial. By using the
"belief" notion in a wider way, it picks out something more akin to a natural kind. The
notion becomes deeper and more unified, and is more useful in explanation.
To provide substantial resistance, an opponent has to show that Otto's and Inga's cases
differ in some important and relevant respect. But in what deep respect are the cases
different? To make the case /solely/ on the grounds that information is in the head in
one case but not in the other would be to beg the question. If this difference is relevant
to a difference in belief, it is surely not /primitively/ relevant. To justify the different
treatment, we must find some more basic underlying difference between the two.
It might be suggested that the cases are relevantly different in that Inga has more
/reliable/ access to the information. After all, someone might take away Otto's notebook
at any time, but Inga's memory is safer. It is not implausible that constancy is relevant:
indeed, the fact that Otto always uses his notebook played some role in our justifying its
cognitive status. If Otto were consulting a guidebook as a one-off, we would be much
less likely to ascribe him a standing belief. But in the original case, Otto's access to the
notebook is very reliable - not perfectly reliable, to be sure, but then neither is Inga's
access to her memory. A surgeon might tamper with her brain, or more mundanely, she
might have too much to drink. The mere possibility of such tampering is not enough to
deny her the belief.
One might worry that Otto's access to his notebook /in fact/ comes and goes. He
showers without the notebook, for example, and he cannot read it when it is dark.
Surely his belief cannot come and go so easily? We could get around this problem by
redescribing the situation, but in any case an occasional temporary disconnection does
not threaten our claim. After all, when Inga is asleep, or when she is intoxicated, we do
not say that her belief disappears. What really counts is that the information is easily
available when the subject needs it, and this constraint is satisfied equally in the two
cases. If Otto's notebook were often unavailable to him at times when the information in
it would be useful, there might be a problem, as the information would not be able to
play the action-guiding role that is central to belief; but if it is easily available in most
relevant situations, the belief is not endangered.
Perhaps a difference is that Inga has /better/ access to the information than Otto does?
Inga's "central" processes and her memory probably have a relatively high-bandwidth
link between them, compared to the low-grade connection between Otto and his
notebook. But this alone does not make a difference between believing and not
believing. Consider Inga's
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museum-going friend Lucy, whose biological memory has only a low-grade link to her
central systems, due to nonstandard biology or past misadventures. Processing in Lucy's
case might be less efficient, but as long as the relevant information is accessible, Lucy
clearly believes that the museum is on 53rd Street. If the connection was too indirect -if
Lucy had to struggle hard to retrieve the information with mixed results, or a
psychotherapist's aid were needed - we might become more reluctant to ascribe the
belief, but such cases are well beyond Otto's situation, in which the information is easily
accessible.
Another suggestion could be that Otto has access to the relevant information only by
/perception/, whereas Inga has more direct access -by introspection, perhaps. In some
ways, however, to put things this way is to beg the question. After all, we are in effect
advocating a point of view on which Otto's internal processes and his notebook
constitute a single cognitive system. From the standpoint of this system, the flow of
information between notebook and brain is not perceptual at all; it does not involve the
impact of something outside the system. It is more akin to information flow within the
brain. The only deep way in which the access is perceptual is that in Otto's case, there is
a distinctly perceptual phenomenology associated with the retrieval of the information,
whereas in Inga's case there is not. But why should the nature of an associated
phenomenology make a difference to the status of a belief? Inga's memory may have
some associated phenomenology, but it is still a belief. The phenomenology is not
visual, to be sure. But for visual phenomenology consider the Terminator, from the
Arnold Schwarzenegger movie of the same name. When he recalls some information
from memory, it is "displayed" before him in his visual field (presumably he is
conscious of it, as there are frequent shots depicting his point of view). The fact that
standing memories are recalled in this unusual way surely makes little difference to
their status as standing beliefs.
These various small differences between Otto's and Inga's cases are all /shallow/
differences. To focus on them would be to miss the way in which for Otto, notebook
entries play just the sort of role that beliefs play in guiding most people's lives.
Perhaps the intuition that Otto's is not a true belief comes from a residual feeling that
the only true beliefs are occurrent beliefs. If we take this feeling seriously, Inga's belief
will be ruled out too, as will many beliefs that we attribute in everyday life. This would
be an extreme view, but it may be the most consistent way to deny Otto's belief. Upon
even a slightly less extreme view - the view that a belief must be /available/ for
consciousness, for example - Otto's notebook entry seems to qualify just as well as
Inga's memory. Once dispositional beliefs are let in the door, it is difficult to resist the
conclusion that Otto's notebook has all the relevant dispositions.
If the thesis is accepted, how far should we go? All sorts of puzzle cases spring to mind.
What of the amnesic villagers in /100 Years of Solitude/, who forget the names for
everything and so hang labels everywhere? Does the information in my Filofax count as
part of my memory? If Otto's notebook has been tampered with, does he believe the
newly-installed information? Do I believe the contents of the page in front of me before
I read it? Is my cognitive state somehow spread across the Internet?
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We do not think that there are categorical answers to all of these questions, and we will
not give them. But to help understand what is involved in ascriptions of extended belief,
we can at least examine the features of our central case that make the notion so clearly
applicable there. First, the notebook is a constant in Otto's life - in cases where the
information in the notebook would be relevant, he will rarely take action without
consulting it. Second, the information in the notebook is directly available without
difficulty. Third, upon retrieving information from the notebook he automatically
endorses it. Fourth, the information in the notebook has been consciously endorsed at
some point in the past, and indeed is there as a consequence of this endorsement^*] The
status of the fourth feature as a criterion for belief is arguable (perhaps one can acquire
beliefs through subliminal perception, or through memory tampering?), but the first
three features certainly play a crucial role.
*[[The constancy and past-endorsement criteria may suggest that history is partly
constitutive of belief. One might react to this by removing any historical component
(giving a purely dispositional reading of the constancy criterion and eliminating the
past-endorsement criterion, for example), or one might allow such a component as long
as the main burden is carried by features of the present.]]
Insofar as increasingly exotic puzzle cases lack these features, the applicability of the
notion of "belief" gradually falls off. If I rarely take relevant action without consulting
my Filofax, for example, its status within my cognitive system will resemble that of the
notebook in Otto's. But if I often act without consultation - for example, if I sometimes
answer relevant questions with "I don't know" - then information in it counts less clearly
as part of my belief system. The Internet is likely to fail on multiple counts, unless I am
unusually computer-reliant, facile with the technology, and trusting, but information in
certain files on my computer may qualify. In intermediate cases, the question of whether
a belief is present may be indeterminate, or the answer may depend on the varying
standards that are at play in various contexts in which the question might be asked. But
any indeterminacy here does not mean that in the central cases, the answer is not clear.
What about socially extended cognition? Could my mental states be partly constituted
by the states of other thinkers? We see no reason why not, in principle. In an unusually
interdependent couple, it is entirely possible that one partner's beliefs will play the same
sort of role for the other as the notebook plays for Otto.[*] What is central is a high
degree of trust, reliance, and accessibility. In other social relationships these criteria
may not be so clearly fulfilled, but they might nevertheless be fulfilled in specific
domains. For example, the waiter at my favorite restaurant might act as a repository of
my beliefs about my favorite meals (this might even be construed as a case of extended
desire). In other cases, one's beliefs might be embodied in one's secretary, one's
accountant, or one's collaborator**]
*[[From the /New York Times/, March 30, 1995, p.B7, in an article on former UCLA
basketball coach John Wooden: "Wooden and his wife attended 36 straight Final Fours,
and she invariably served as his memory bank. Nell Wooden rarely forgot a name - her
husband rarely remembered one -and in the standing-room-only Final Four lobbies, she
would recognize people for him."]]
**[[Might this sort of reasoning also allow something like Burge's extended "arthritis"
beliefs? After all, I might always defer to my doctor in taking relevant actions
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concerning my disease. Perhaps so, but there are some clear differences. For example,
any extended beliefs would be grounded in an existing active relationship with the
doctor, rather than in a historical relationship to a language community. And on the
current analysis, my deference to the doctor would tend to yield something like a true
belief that I have some other disease in my thigh, rather than the false belief that I have
arthritis there. On the other hand, if I used medical experts solely as terminological
consultants, the results of Burge's analysis might be mirrored.]]
In each of these cases, the major burden of the coupling between agents is carried by
language. Without language, we might be much more akin to discrete Cartesian "inner"
minds, in which high-level cognition relies largely on internal resources. But the advent
of language has allowed us to spread this burden into the world. Language, thus
construed, is not a mirror of our inner states but a complement to them. It serves as a
tool whose role is to extend cognition in ways that on-board devices cannot. Indeed, it
may be that the intellectual explosion in recent evolutionary time is due as much to this
linguistically-enabled extension of cognition as to any independent development in our
inner cognitive resources.
What, finally, of the self? Does the extended mind imply an extended self? It seems so.
Most of us already accept that the self outstrips the boundaries of consciousness; my
dispositional beliefs, for example, constitute in some deep sense part of who I am. If so,
then these boundaries may also fall beyond the skin. The information in Otto's
notebook, for example, is a central part of his identity as a cognitive agent. What this
comes to is that Otto /himself/ is best regarded as an extended system, a coupling of
biological organism and external resources. To consistently resist this conclusion, we
would have to shrink the self into a mere bundle of occurrent states, severely
threatening its deep psychological continuity. Far better to take the broader view, and
see agents themselves as spread into the world.
As with any reconception of ourselves, this view will have significant consequences.
There are obvious consequences for philosophical views of the mind and for the
methodology of research in cognitive science, but there will also be effects in the moral
and social domains. It may be, for example, that in some cases interfering with
someone's environment will have the same moral significance as interfering with their
person. And if the view is taken seriously, certain forms of social activity might be
reconceived as less akin to communication and action, and as more akin to thought. In
any case, once the hegemony of skin and skull is usurped, we may be able to see
ourselves more truly as creatures of the world.
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REFERENCES
Blake, A. & Yuille, A. (eds) 1992. /Active Vision/. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Burge, T. 1979. Individualism and the mental. Midwest Studies in Philosophy 4:73-122.
Haugeland, J. 1995. Mind embodied and embedded. In (Y. Houng and J. Ho, eds.),
/Mind and Cognition/. Taipei: Academia Sinica.
McClelland, J.L, D.E. Rumelhart, & G.E. Hinton 1986. The appeal of parallel
distributed processing". In (McClelland & Rumelhart, eds) /Parallel Distributed
Processing, Volume 2/. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
McHugh, M. 1992. /China Mountain Zhang/. New York: Tom Doherty Associates.
Putnam, H. 1975. The meaning of meaning'. In (K. Gunderson, ed) /Language, Mind,
and Knowledge/. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Varela, F., Thompson, E. & Rosch, E. 1991. /The Embodied Mind/. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
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