DATA COLLECTION

Dimensions of Data Collection

Approaches
2. Structure
3. Quantifiability
4. Researcher Obtrusiveness
5. Objectivity
 Major Types of Data
Collection
SelfReports
Observation
Biophysiologic Measures
 Identifying Data
Needs: Quantitative
Study
Data Requirements for the following:
2.Testing hypotheses or addressing the research
questions
3.Describing sample characteristics
4.Controlling extraneous variables
5.Analyzing potential biases
6.Understanding subgroup effects
7.Interpreting results
8.Checking the manipulation
9.Obtaining administrative information
Types of Data Collection: Qualitative
Unstructured Interviews
 An oral self-report in which the
researcher asks a respondent questions
without having a predetermined plan
regarding the content or flow of
information to be gathered
 Conversational and interactive
 Mode of choice when researchers do
not have a clear idea of what it is they
do not know
Types of Data Collection:
Qualitative Research contd
Semistructured Interviews
 An interview in which the researcher has listed topics
to cover rather than specific question to ask
 Interviewers are guided by a topic guides the
discussion according to a written set of questions or
topics to be covered
Joint Interviews
An interview where two or more people are
interviewed simultaneously, typically using
structured or unstructured interview
 Types of Data Collection:
Qualitative Research contd.
 Life Histories
Are narrative self-disclosures about individual life
experiences
Encourage respondents to narrate, in chronological
sequence, their life experiences
 Oral Histories
Focus on describing important themes rather than
individuals
Used in order to gather personal recollections of events
and perceived causes and consequences
 Critical Incidents
Method of gathering information about people’s
behaviors by examining specific incidents relating to the
behavior under investigation
Types of Qualitative Reports
contd.

 Diaries and Journals

Respondents are asked to maintain daily records about some
aspects of their lives
 Think-Aloud Method
Used to collect data about cognitive processes such as
thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making
 Photo Elicitation Interviews
Involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographic
images.
Self-Report Narratives on the Internet
Involves narrative self-reports from a potentially rich data
source, where data is directly solicited from a large audience
of Internet users
Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data

 Purpose:
To enable researchers to construct
reality in ways that are consistent with the
construction of the people being studied.

 Goal:
Requires researchers to take steps to
overcome communication barriers and to
enhance the flow of meaning.
Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data

 Steps:
Preparing for the Interview
Conversational but purposeful
which requires thought and
preparation
Researcher + respondent =
common vocabulary
TIP: 1. Memorize the central
questions to maintain eye
contact
2. Use high-quality tape
 Conducting the Interview
Prepare the respondents by putting them
at ease
 Close rapport with respondents
provides access to richer
information and to
personal, intimate details of their
stories
 Be a good listener
 Be prepared for strong emotions
 Potential interview crises
Conducting the Interview
contd

Post interview Procedures

 Tape recording interviews are
listened and checked for
audibility and completeness soon
after the interview is over
Evaluation of Qualitative
Approaches
1. Qualitative
interviews are of greatest utility when a
new era of research is being explored

3. An unstructured approach may allow investigators

to ascertain what the basic issues or problems are,
how sensitive or controversial the topic is, how
easy it is to secure respondents’ cooperation in
discussing issues, how individuals conceptualize
and talk about the problems , and what range of
opinions or behaviors exist relevant to the topic.
Evaluation of
Qualitative
Approaches
 Qualitative interviews are extremely time-
consuming and demanding of researchers’
skills in analyzing and interpreting the
resulting data.

 They do not lend themselves to the rigorous

testing of hypotheses about cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Quantitative Self-Report
Instruments
Open-ended Question
 Allow respondent to answer in their
own words, in narrative fashion

Closed-ended Question
 Or fixed-alternative
 Offer respondents alternative replies,
from which subjects must choose the
one that most closely matches the
appropriate answer
 Quantitative Self-
Report Instruments
Questionnaires
Self-administered questionnaires
can be distributed in person, by
mail, or over the internet
Advantages: less costly and require
less time and energy to administer,
offer the possibility of complete
anonymity, and absence of
interviewer ensures no interviewer
bias
Quantitative Self-
Report Instruments

Interviews
Advantages outweigh those of
questionnaires in terms of response
rates, audience, clarity, depth of
questioning, missing information,
order of questions, sample control,
supplementary data
Using and Preparing Structured
Self-Report Instruments

 Dichotomous questions
Require respondents to make a
choice between alternatives.

 Multiple-choice questions
This offer more than two response
alternatives.
Using and Preparing Structured
Self-Report Instruments

 Cafeteria questions
These are a special type of multiple
question that asks respondents to
select a response that most
corresponds to their view.
 Rank-order questions
These questions ask respondents to
rank target concepts along a
continuum, such as the most to
least important.
 Using and Preparing Structured
Self-Report Instruments

 Forced-choice questions
Require respondents to choose between two
statements that represent polar positions or
characteristics.
 Rating questions
Ask respondents to evaluate something along
an
ordered dimension.
 Checklists
Encompass several questions that have the
same
response format.
 Using and Preparing Structured
Self-Report Instruments

 Calendar questions
These questions are used to obtain
retrospective information about the
chronology of different events and
activities in people’s lives.
 Visual analogue scales
These are used to measure
subjective
experiences, such as pain.
 LIKERT SCALES/
SUMMATED RATING
SCALES
 Named after Rensis Likert
 Most widely used scaling technique
 Steps in Constructing Likert-type
Scale:
 Develop a large pool of items
that state different position on
an issue.
 Total score is computed by
summing the item scores
COMPOSITE SCALES

 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Technique for measuring psychosocial
trait
Respondents are asked to rate a concept
on a series of bipolar adjectives
2 Considerations to Guide Selection:
○ Adjective pairs should be
appropriated for the concept being
used and for the information being
sought.
○ The extent to which the adjective
measure the same dimension of the
Existing Self-Report Scales
and Psychological Measures

 CINAHL database includes

information on the scales used
in research studies
 Response Biases
Tendency of respondents to
distort their responses
Response sets
Extreme response
Acquiescence response set
Development of structured
self report instrument

Once data needs have been identified cluster them into

separate modules or areas of questioning
Sequence modules to an order that is psychologically
meaningful and encourages candor and cooperation
The schedule should begin with questions that are
interesting and non sensitive,
Before questioning you must read about the introductory
comments but most often incorporated into an informed
consent form
Introduction should be pleasant and tastefully structured
since it is the first contact with the potential participants
When first instrument draft is already in order critically
discuss with experts or peer reviewers in your area of
interest
It should also be reviewed with individuals who have the
technical expertise to detect problems
Development of
structured self report
instrument contd

Introduction should be pleasant and tastefully

structured since it is the first contact with the
potential participants
When first instrument draft is already in order
critically discuss with experts or peer
reviewers in your area of interest
It should also be reviewed with individuals
who have the technical expertise to detect
problems
Revision based on feedback
Pretesting
 Tips for Developing
Structured Self-Report
Instruments
Tips for Wording Questions:
Clarity
Ability of Respondents to Give Information
Bias
Sensitive Information
Tips for Developing Structured
Self-Report Instruments

 State the question in the affirmative

 Avoid long sentences or phrases, and avoid
technical terms
 Avoid “double-barreled” question that
contain two distinct ideas.
 Do not assume that respondents will be
aware of, or informed about, issues or
questions in which you are interested.
 Avoid leading questions that suggest a
particular kind of answer
Tips for Developing Structured
Self-Report Instruments contd

State a range of alternatives within the

question itself when possible
For questions that deal with
controversial opinion or socially
unacceptable behavior close-ended
question may be preferred.
Impersonal wording of a question is
sometimes useful in minimizing
embarrassment and encouraging
honesty.
 Tips for Preparing
Response Alternatives

Alternatives should be mutually

exclusive
There should be an underlying
rationale for ordering alternatives
Response alternatives should not
be too lengthy
Tips for Formatting
an Instrument
 Set off the response options from the question
or stem itself
 Give special care to formatting filter questions
 Avoid forcing all respondents to go through
inapplicable questions in SAQ