Tunnels and Tuneling

MASTER
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Foams & polymers
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Main bearing greases

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MasterRoc EPB lubricating greases
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Segment concrete admixtures
Foam s~stems
... and engineering know-how
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15 Bat
Tunnelling under highest water pressure to
secure the water supply for the dry-running ci:y
of Las Vegas. He rrenknecht and Vegas Tunnel
Constructors jointly mastered even unpredictable
conditions with a powerful TBM .
Worldwide
Unique project at Lake Mead:
140m depth, 4Akm tunnel length,
3 years' determined work.
Record
Outstanding success for a Herrenknecht
Multi-mode TBM: for the fi rst time
a tunnel boring machine tackled and
withstood 15 bar water pressure.
Pioneering Underground Technologies

> www.herrenknecht.com/lakemead
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I
COMMENT
Alex
LOFTY HOPES FOR

WORLD'S HlGHEST
Conacher
Editor
AR ABOVE the destruction and loss of life caused by

the Nepal earthquake last month, climbers shelterin g
at the Everest Base Camp end ured days of avalanches.
Huddling together und er tables, and taking it in turns to
dig one anoth er out of smothered tents.
The mountain itself was at the epicentre of another
tremour last month, as the global press grew giddy
fo llowing an announcement by China's state-owned media
that the world 's high est mountai n might soo n be tu nnell ed
as part of a link to Nepal. The proposed extension to the
Qinghai-Tibet hi gh-speed rail lin e wo uld link Lh asa in
Tibet with Kathmandu in Nepal would likely requi re such a
tunnel.
The project would face extreme challenges, and the
existing lin e is already a record breaker. The highest po int
of the 1,956km route is already at 5,072m above sea level.
This is the highest railway in the wo rld , rising over 200m
higher than the Peruvian railway in the Andes. lt also passes
through the high est tun nel in the world (the Fenghuoshan
Tunnel, 4,9 05m) and the longest plateau tunnel (the
Ku nlun Mountain Tunn el, 1,686m).
Political challenges have also been thrown at the scheme
even at this ea rly stage. India is reluctant for China to
have more sway with neighbouring cou ntries, wh ile China
claims that this project is being consid ered at Nepalese
governme nt's request.
And the United States government's policy of hemmin g
in perceived Chinese expansionist ambitions has led
Washington to declare the project a threat to regional
security, the lib erty of Tibet, and an environmental concern
for the Him alayas.
These challenges aside, the growin g excitement in the
med ia apparently led an over-stimulated journalist to claim
the tunnel wo uld be complete by 2020, at which point
'V
Wang Menshu, chief engin eer with the

China Railway Tunnel Group decided
to intervene, and give an interview to
Chinese state media to douse the press
with some rea lity.
Wang sa id that reported costs of
CNY 1OOM (USD 16M) per kilom eter
we re an underestimation of the
complexity of the job, and contractors
would not take the work. Fatal
accidents on the existing lin e - on
wh ich over 100 workers died - were
also a major concern to autho rities.
And at the heights required, there
is also a need to provide oxygen for
workers, which is an unusual logistica l
chall enge.
The length of tunnels required has
not been revea led due to the early
state of the studies, but they have
been described as 'very long ' due to
the regio ns that political lea ders want
to connect.
However, despite the challenges,
China has been considering this
project for nearly a decade, and Wang
concedes that if the political and
financial backing were there, it wou ld
of course be possible. Just not by
2020 r,
This month ...

Cover
The font cover
shows a miner of
the Kargi hyde\
project as Lok
Home of Robbins
argues the case
for TBMs
20YEARSAGO
This Apri l saw the placement of the last of the tu nnel segments by the Fionia TBM in Storebaelt's
northern tunnel in Denmark. This moliTlentous event brings to a close the tunnel boring portion of
this project after almost five yea rs. Acccrding to cu rrent time schedules, the first freight trains are
expected to pass through the tunnel n :he autu mn of 1996, whi le passenger traffic is expected to
commence at the beginn ing of 1997.
Tunnels and Tunnel ling, May 1995, p.~
Ne xt issue
In the next issue ofTunnels and
Tunnel ling we focus on North America
in the World Tunnel Congrss issue.
The tunnelling industry heads to
Dubrovnik in a key event in the history
of tunnelling. The ITA is being shaken up
with a young members group.
30YEARSAGO
One of the most extraordinary international projects ever conceived could well become a reality
following recent positive discussions abJut a fixed lin k between England and France, and now
between Korea and Japan. At a 1981 Co1ference on the Unity of the Sciences, delegates from
100 nations agreed to a highway proj.:c stretching from London to Tokyo, involving a 200km
tunnel link between Japan and South Kcrea. The proposed porta l locations are at Fukuoka on the
Japanese island of Kyushu to Kije-do n :iouth Korea. Two islands between these points would act
as access sites for the construction of tlile subsea tunnel breaking the link into three sections: a
60km-long tunnel from Tsushima lsla1d to Koje-do, a 50km tunnel from Tsushima to lki Island, and
a bridge from lki to Fukuoka.
Tunnels and Tunnelling, May 1985, p.a
www. tunnels onLine. info
May 2015 I Tunnels I 3
DOUBLE SHIELD TBM

TERRATEC celebrates its 25th Anniversary by delivering a new Hard Rock Double Shield Tunnel
Boring Machine for Xe-Pian Xe-Namnoy Hydroelectric Project in Laos.
The Tunnelling Contractor, SELl Overseas S.p.A. preferred TERRATEC to design and
manufacture the TBM. With this mmestone, TERRATEC consolidates its sales expansion of
Hard Rock TBMs into the global mar~et.
t 1990-2015
ANNIVERSARY
TUNNELLING SOLUTIONS
I HYDROPOWER
'R RATEC
CONTENTS
r,
Left: The
Harbour Siphons
project in New
York, page 27
News
7
News
Insight
43 WTC welcome
The latest project updates, corporate

moves and tunnelling advances
from around the world
18 Big picture
This month 's big picture shows
the transportation of Toronto 's
Crosstown TBMs
World Tunnel Congress heads tc

Croatia for the fnst ever such ~~nt
in South East Europe
45 When the ground gets tcu;Jh

Rhian Owen, technical journali;t
A look at some of the options for
TBM tooling, specifically when it
comes to mixed ground
North America
27 San Francisco Bay Tunnel
Adrian Greeman, freelancer
Work has successfully completed
and water flowed late last year
27 New York Harbour Siphons

Desiree Willis, Robbins
The journey to TBM breakthrough
was anything but smooth
What do you
think? Send
your views
to the editor
and join the
debate
editor@
tunnelsonline.
info
Technical
35 Inverse analysis in design

Gakis et al, Dr. Sauer 8: Partners
The inverse analysis of finished
tunnel structures to verify models
used in the design process
www. tunnelsonline. info
'V
Tribute
55 Tribute to Myles
Barry New, GCG
A tribute to the retiring chairman
of the Tunnels and Tunnelling
Editorial Advisory Board
56 Settlements above tunnels

Myles O'Reilly, formerly TRRL
Barry New, GCG
We reprint Myles's often-cited
1982 paper 'Settlements above
tunnels in the United Kingdom their magnitude and prediction '
Contributors
MYLES O'REILLY
Myles is the outgoing chairman of the Tunnels
and Tunnelling Editorial Advisory Board.
Formerly he worked for the Transport Et Road
Research Laboratory in the UK. His famous
1982 paper on tunnelling induced settlements
can be read on page 56.
BARRY NEW
Barry is another member of the Advisory
Board, and is an associate of the Geotechnical
Consulting Group, splitting his time between
the UK and US. Barry writes a tribute to his
colleague on page 55.
"'
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WORLD
SR99 TBM rescued

USA- Contract Seattle
Tunnel Partners (STP)
completed the lifting
process to remove the 57ft
(17.4m) diameter cutterhead
and main drive unit of
the TBM mining the SR99
replacement tunnel on March
31, the Washington State
Department of Transportation
(WSDOT) announced.
The 2,000t section was lifted
from an access shaft and
placed on a repair platform
nearby. Crews have since
removed the machine's
bearing block and, as Tunnels
Et Tunnelling goes to print.
are expected to remove the
main bearing. Manufacturer
Hitachi Zosen will then begin
making repairs. The lifts were
performed using a Modular
Lift Tower, supplied by
Mammoet.
A new main bearing will be
installed, along with repairs
to the outer seal ring, among
other work to create a more
robust system. As well, steel
plates are being added to
the shield for reinforcement.
After the TBM is reassembled
in the access shaft, there will
be a period of testing and
commissioning before the
TBM can relaunch.
The TBM stopped mining
in December 2013, some
1,OOOft from the launch

shaft. with another 8,000ft
left of the drive. Following
hyperbaric inspections during
early 2014, WSDOT and STP
identified two contributing
factors: a clogged cutterhead
and high-temperature
readings that led STP to
discover damage to the seal
system that protects main
bearing. To make necessary
repairs and replace the
main bearing, STP chose to
excavate an access shaft
along the alignment rather
than performing the work in
the tunnel.
Crews completed excavation
on the 83ft-wide circular
shaft. 120ft (37m) deep on
January 30, and then built
a concrete cradle on the
bottom to support the TBM
upon reception. STP advanced
the TBM in late February into
the access pit for disassembly.
"The industry keeps moving
forward with larger and
larger tunnels," said Chris
Dixon , STP's project manager.
"The tunnelling industry is
watching this project very
closely so everybody is doing
their part to make all of this
happen as quickly and safely
as possible, so that we can
resume tunnelling as soon as
possible."
STP comprises a joint venture
between Dragados USA and
News briefs
CHINA
The 44~ 1km route has 30 stations. Running southeast from
Linchang, the line crosses the River Yangtse in tunnel between
Liuzhoudonglu and Shangyuanmen. All stations apart from one
are underground. Construction started in January 2010 and was
divided into northwestern and southern sections.
MEXICO
Soldiers have apprehended nine amateur tunnel engineers
excavating an alleged drugs tunnel in Tijuana, Mexico~ The
eventual al ignment wou ld apparently stretch into California,
USA. Some 150m had already been excavated. Following a tipoff, a spoil removal truck was also apprehended at the scene.
CHINA
Twelve workers that were trapped after a road tunnel collapsed
in southwest China's Yunnan Province have been rescued, local
autho rities said at the end of last month. The incident occurred
on 29 April in an operational road tunnel in Yunnan Province~
www. tunnelsonline.info
Tutor Perini C:>rp. STP's team

includes se\er.JI firms local to
Seattle, amon;J them Frank
Coluccio Coostruction and
HNTB Corp. 11\'SDOT awarded
the contrac: i1 January 2011.
Undergrc und freight

solution to be trialled
GREAT BRITAII'J - Mole
Solutions is e::ploring the
possibility a:f using small
robot trains rlllnning on
underground : racks to
manage delrvcries. It has
reportedly r~c=ived a funding
packet from the British
government to help test the
viability of :he proposal.
The UK-based company
was formed in 2002 to
focus specifically on
underground and piped
freight solu:icns. The system
it favours u~e ~ magnetic
wave propu lsion; effectively
mag-lev tedlrology. In
fact, the tech raology used
here is simple u, cheaper and
generates much less heat
than magle\'. t1t works with
partners incl uding DHL (3rd
party logistidl, Morgan
Sindall (Tunnelling and
Pipe constrLction), Laing
O'Rourke (C"vii Engineering),
Force Enginee-ing (capsule
propulsion), WGH (capsule
and track) anc SoSustainable
(socio - envi ronmental),
Local Univer:si:y for data
gathering atld analysis.
Mole Solution ~ said the small
tunnels could be installed
alongside ex:is:ing transport
infrastructu re <Jnd create a
system that riAls 24 hours
a day.
The steel ccrriages would
run down ccncrete tubes
measuring b~t Neen 1.3 m
(4.27ft) and 2.4m (7.87
ft), while th~ loading and
unloading WIOLid also be
handled automatically.
Unloaded pallEts would
be stored in ses:::ure,
temperature-c::mtrolled units
at specified :le;Jot.
Capsules woJid not power
themselves, n ~tead electricity
would be used to run linear
induction moJtors (LIMs)
built into th~ t rack. The
magnetic fie:ld3 would then
-1
r,
NEWS
propel the capsules to their

destination. UK newspaper
The Independent reports
that the Department for the
Environment. Food and Rural
Affairs in Britain has stumped
up cash for a trial run in
Northampton.
There are benefits for
supply companies like DHL
or UPS, as they could get
packages to customers more
quickly for less cost. Despite
the enthusiasm for the
idea, all the parties involved
admit there's a long way to
go before we're picking up
our deliveries from a Mole
Solutions drop-off point.
The small-scale trial is
designed to investigate the
commercial, environmental
and socio-economic impact
of such a scheme before
a decision is made on
whether it can be rolled out
elsewhere.
Shatin to Central Link

TBM begins work
HONG KONG- The TBM
('Princess Wencheng') has
begun work on Hong Kong's
Shatin to Central Link. It
launched from the To Kwa
Wan Station site shaft to
begin a 1.6km drive to
Ho Man Tin Station - the
Kowloon City Section of the
project.
A second TBM, 'Princess
Iron Fan', is set to begin her
drive later this year.
BTSYM events calendar

to take in new locations
GREAT BRITAIN- The British
Tunnelling Society Young
Members is expanding its
programme of workshops
and events to locations
outside London. Starting
with a presentation in
May on recent experience
with large diameter boring
machines, then a workshop
on contract management in
June. Both are to be hosted
in Birmingham.
Expect to see more as the
group acts on its ambitions
to spread its influence further
afield, with a new drive for
regional inclusion.
I(')
NE W S
I WORLD
CBE announces Sao

Paulo Metro mould
contract
BRAZ IL- CBE will supply 45
segment moulds to Consorcio
Expresso Linha 6, the joint
venture that will construct
line 6 of the Sao Paulo
subway system. Additionally,
CBE will deliver a carousel
setup for that the company
says will "ensure segment
production on site".
The precast segmental
ring will have an inner
diameter of 9.410mm and
an external diameter of
10,210mm. Segments will
have a thickness of 400mm
and a width of 1,800mm.
The concrete rings will be
composed of six standard
segments, two counter-keysegments and one key-stone.
The carousel facility
comprises rails, concreting
cabin, a four-line curing
chamber, demoulding station
and finishing line and will
be designed at the head
offices of CBE in France.
The contract includes supply
of sophisticated handling
equipment such as four
motor-operated storage
clamps. After transport to
Brazil, the carousel will be
assembled by CBE technicians
in cooperation with the
technical staff of Consorcio
Expresso Linha 6. The
carrousel is able to produce
40 segments throughout an
eight hour shift.
CBE Group already
supplied segment moulds and
precast facilities for the Sao
Paulo metro line 5 which is
currently under construction.
The sixth line in Sao Paulo,
has been scheduled to open
in 2020. The new line with a
total length of 15.3km and
has 15 stations between
Brasilandia and Sao Joaquim
and is planned to transport
633 thousand passengers per
day.
... and German rail

project contract for the
same
GERMANY- CBE announced
its participation in the
8 I Tunnels I May 2015
Rastatt Tunnel Jrl)ject that

will form part cf t he high
speed railway line between
Karlsruhe and Easel. Some
42 segment mooljs will be
delivered to the Eerman
precast supplier f\.1ax Bogl,
which is in charge of the
production of <4Jproximately
15,000 concret= segments
for the tunnel wi t h a total
length of 4.27km crossing
beneath Rastat1 fcom east to
south.
The moulds 1a"e an outer
diameter of 10,13(10 mm
and an inner di3rneter of
9,600 mm. Eacli! concrete
ring will have a t mickness of
500mm, a widt1 of 1,950mm
and 2,000mm c:nm will be
composed of foor standard,
two counter-key and one key
segment. Segment production
will be made in a static plant
configuration.
The contracto r is ARGE
Tunnel Rastatt, a joint
venture of ZUblin and
Hochtief. The bJiiding site
has been prepa med since
November 201 4-, t he assembly
of the TBM wil Lb= in April
2015, tunnellin~ s scheduled
to start in October 2015
and lining is planned to be
finished in 201 3.
Rome's 87 Metr o
Line handedoJler by
contractor
ITALY - Salini lrrpregilo
SpA completed and handed
over to the city o= Rome the
last section of li n= B1 of the
Rome Metro str;etrhing from
the Conca d'Orm station to
the Jonio statioo.
The Jonio statiu n, the
new terminal, has. a threelevel covered cc:r park with
250 parking sp;ces. The
entire section onnprises four
stations, five shafts, 7,200m
of 6.7m-diameter single
tunnel track anj 1.100 m of
9.8m-diameter double track
tunnel.
Sunset Tumwl track

replacement
USA- Last mcn1h the
San Francisco M ~ icipal
Transportation A.!;ency
(SFMTA) began replacing

the ageing track and other
infrastructure inside the
1,290m Sunset Tunnel to
improve safety and reliability
of the N Judah rail service for
Muni customers. The project
will encompass track and
infrastructure replacements
inside the Sunset Tunnel,
located between Cole Valley
and Duboce Triangle, Transit
Signal Priority (TSP) upgrades
for nine intersections
along the N Judah Line,
and construction of two
accessible platforms at Judah
and 28th Avenue. Seismic
upgrades involve structural
retrofit of the tunnel portal
retaining walls and their
foundations.
400M more expensive than

the current section.
It is also claimed that
the tunnel meets new EU
safety standards, with an
underground fire fighting
station taking the place
of the previously required
mandatory open-air gap on
tunnels over 20km.
The Improve Life project
to assess and improve air
quality in metro stations and
trains has been launched
in Barcelona. The EU's LIFE
programme is funding 50
per cent of the EUR 0.8M
cost. and the results are
to be made available to
other operators so that the
recommendations can be
applied elsewhere.
Wendover proposes
deep tunnel alternative
Clear air project

launched in Spain
GREAT BRITAINCampaigners have launched

a report arguing the case
for an additional deep HS2
tunnel, which would better
protect village of Wendover
(population 7,000) in
Buckinghamshire.
Under the current
government plans, a
deep bored tunnel will
run only under south
Buckinghamshire, with the
line emerging near Great
Missenden and a cut and
cover structure running past
Wendover.
However, a new study
commissioned by Chiltern
District Council and
supported by Aylesbury
Vale District Council.
Buckinghamshire County
Council and the Chilterns
Conservation Board calls
for a 24.2km tunnel
throughout the whole of the
Chilterns, emerging at Stoke
Mandeville.
The report. produced
by Peter Brett Associates,
mitigates 'so far as is possible
the impact on Wendover' and
actually makes gives HS2
a 'more economic route to
operate'.
The cost of this alternative
route, dubbed the Chilterns
Long Route, is estimated at
GBP 1.85bn, making it GBP
SPAIN - The Improve Life

project to assess and improve
air quality in metro stations
and trains has been launched
in Barcelona. The EU's LIFE
programme is fund ing 50
per cent of the EUR 0.8M
cost, and the results are
to be made available to
other operators so that the
recommendations can be
applied elsewhere.
The Spanish Research
Council for Scientific
Resea rch and metro operator
TMB are to carry out a more
thorough analysis following
a study three years ago. The
concentration of airborne
suspended micro particles
will be measured and their
chemical composition
analysed.
Measurements will
be taken under normal
conditions and during work
that generates dust. such as
track renovation. Specific
components like rails, brake
pads, ballast and electric
wires will be analysed
with a view to finding
alternative materials for
their composition or coatings
to reduce dust generation.
The effectiveness of tunnel
ventilation will also be
examined.
The first measuring
apparatus has been installed
QJ
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In
NEws
1 woRLD
Indian Government
mulls immersed tube
tunnels
INDIA - The Indian
Government may commission
two immersed tunnels in the
next few years. The shipping
ministry has envisaged these
projects - one between
Kakdwip and Sagar island in
West Bengal, and the other
connecting Chatham and
Bamboo Flat in Andaman
Nicobar islands.
The Times of India reports
that shipping minister
Nitin Gadkari said recently
his ministry is exploring
the possibility of building
these immersed corridors to
improve connectivity, and
that the task has been given
to Nationa l Highways and the
state-owned Infrastructure
Development Corporation Ltd
(NHJDCL). NHIDCL has called
tenders from consultants to
prepare the techno-economic
study of both the stretches.
"We have given two
options to the bidders
-to prepare reports for
building elevated stretches
and immersed tunnel. The
ministry will take a decision
based on thei r techn ical
feasibility and the amount
required to build these
infrastructures," a senior
NHIDCL official said.
As per the bid document,
the consultant has to carry
out detailed study for
constructing the corridor
for both rail and road traffic
in the case of Kakdwip and
Sagar Island connectivity
through Muri Ganga River.
This wi ll be around 3.5km.
"The connectivity wil l
prove beneficial for cargo
movement with the mainland.
There will be more demand
once the Sagar Port project
starts," a shipping ministry
official said.
He added that as per their
rough estimate submersible
tunnel will cost less than the
elevated track on this stretch.
"Immersed tunnels are
aesthetic and these pose no
hind rance to the movement
of ships," said the official.
The other proposed
corridor betweer Chatham

and Bamboo Rat in Andaman
Nicoba r Islands !s about
2km. At present people
need to travel about 48km
to reach from orne point
to other thro ~ r land. The
construction cf an immersed
tunnel or elevated corridor
will bring the ll:V\.o regions
closer.
The ministry 3lleged that
immersed tecJ-nology had not
been used in il di a thus far.
Young tunnel engineers

at forefron! of
achievement awards
GREAT BRI TAI"\1- Two
past cha irs of the British
Tunnelling Soc:iet:y Young
Members (BTS,YM) have been
shortlisted for t im e Asian
Women of Ad tievement
Awards. Joan n;e Sui and
Anita Wu, born Df London
Bridge Associctes have been
nominated for t llt e awards,
which were la unched over
15 years ago to t elebrate the
achievements Jf successful
Asian women n British
society.
Asked if th s represented
a growing recmg1ition of
the tunnelling irdustry,
Wu agreed, add i1g: "It also
shows the groNi ng number
of women in en gineering,
and that engi neering is being
correctly recognised by others
as an admirab e profession."
Sui said: "Th ese
awards are taqJeted at
those in a dive r~ range
of industries imc uding
business, entre p ~eneu rsh ip
and engineeri ng.. I hope
that people loJk at our
achievements 300 see that
tunnelling is .., important
industry that !s mot just a
'man's world'."
And for as pir ng tunnel
engineers, Su i rex:ommends:
"Get as much =xperience
as you can, it'~ ;;mazing
what you can learn from
other people. _oin [a Young
Members' grol!l p: and meet
new people, tJ-e r.e are so
many likemin ced people
in the industr')l. Always
remember tha t t1ere is plenty
more to learn.
Wu added: "Always
ask questions and work
hard. If you have to put
in an extra 20 per cent of
effort compared to others
to understand something
then do put in the extra 20
per cent. Do not be afraid
of challenges, see it as an
opportunity and grab every
opportunity you can."
David Sha rrocks, MD of
London Bridge Associates
commented : "It is to both of
their great credit that they
have been shortlisted by AWA
as high achievers. They do far
more than their day job.
"The fact that they are
young Asian women is both
important and unimportant.
It is important because they
do help to encourage other
youngsters, other Asians and
other women by being visible
and by their actions and
initiatives.
"Ultimately the wider
the pool of talent that the
tunnelling industry can draw
upon the better the industry
will perform.
"It is also unimportant
because it is the combination
of their personalities, skills,
knowledge and experience
that enables them to do their

jobs as tunnelling engineers
on Tideway and the Bond
Street Station Upgrade."
Herrenknecht pipe
installation system's
third success
SW EDEN- Herrenknecht's
newly developed semitrenchless method for
pipeline installation has
completed its third successful
mission. South of Stockholm,
using Pipe Express lublin
Scandinavia AB installed a
water pipeline more than a
kilometer in length within
twelve days. Groundwater
lowering was not required
despite a water level just
below the terrain's surface. In
the most productive 12-hour
shift. 221 meters of pipeline
disappeared into the ground;
the average construction
performance was 0.70 meters
per minute. About 60 percent
of the construction time was
taken up just with welding
and coating the up to 224m
long steel pipe strings.
A spokesman said, "We see
strong potential fo r the new
method on the market.
n
Anita Wu (left) and Joanne Sui both work for London Bridge
Associates in London , UK
www. tunnelsonline. in fo
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NEws
1 woRLD
TBM ready to begin

excavation in Laos
Xe-Pian X-Namnoy TBM

starts work
LAOS- March saw the
start of TBM tunnelling
works on the 11.8km-long,
low-pressure headrace tunnel
for the Xe-Pian Xe-Namnoy
Hydropower Project.
A ceremony was arranged
and attended by officials
from Xe-Pian Xe-Namnoy
Power Company, SK
Engineering 8: Construction,
Sel i Overseas and TBM
manufacturer Terratec.
The TBM had begun to
advance through a 500m
of tunnel ad it excavated by
drill and blast as TB:T went to
press. Once the TBM reaches
the tunnel face, it will
commence work on the main
11.3km bore.
The machine is a 5.74m
diameter double shield
hard rock TBM designed
and manufactured by
Terratec. It will have to
excavate through two main
geological formations,
the Tholam Formation
consisting of mudstones
and si ltstones and the
Champa Formation including
siltstones, sandstones and
conglomerates.
The TBM was tested and
accepted at the factory in
December. Since then, it was
dismantled, transported to
site and re-assembled within
approximately :hree months,

which accordin;J :o the
manufacturer \li'l a$ logistically
challeng ing du l!: to the
remote location cf the site.
The project als:o calls
for the constru :tion of
two centra I co~d rock fi II
dams, waterwawtunnels
with a vertical ; h3ft and
a powerhouse !;emerating
capacity at 41 (]l'vJN
Tunnel is the product of

extensive collaboration
between DC Water and the
District agencies to find
an innovative and timely
solution to damaging local
flooding. The project will
bring needed rel ief to the
community and help put
residents on a pathway to the
middle class."
Third District of
Columbia TBN ready to
launch
Jacobs wins early

design work for
Heathrow rail link
proposal
USA - DC Wa11er hosted

a ceremony on Ap>ri I 14 to
name and christe1 the third
TBM in its fleet:, which will
mine the First Stneet Tunnel,
part of the 13.1-mile long
Anacostia Rivet TJ nnel
system.
The 2,700ft (!!23m)long tunnel is s o=t-160ft
(24m-48.8m) telow ground
and will excavate through
frozen ground. A contractor
JV of Skanska/.Lay Dee
secured the USD 157M
design-build ccntlract in
October 2013.
District of CiJi umbia
Mayor Muriel Eowser said,
"This part of DC ~.'V aters Clean
Rivers Project \li'l il bring
relief to these 11eighbo rhoods
that have expe uienced
flooding fo r more than
100 years. The First Street
GREAT BRITAIN- Jacobs

Engineering has been tasked
with design and studies work
fo r a proposed Network
Rail link to Heathrow. The
'Western Rail Access to
Heathrow' project will apply
for a Development Consent
Order in early 2016. Jacobs
will produce the design fo r
the proposal documentation .
The scope of work includes
topographical surveys and
geotech nical investigations,
tunneling design for the
new 3.1-mile (Skm) route,
and railway systems designs
for track and overhead Iine
equipment.
The proposed Western
Rail Access to Heathrow
includes a new direct, double
track link between the Great
Western main line at Langley
in Berkshire (16 miles west
of Paddington Station in
London) into Terminal 5 at
Heathrow airport.
The link is expected to
provide greater connectivity
from south Wales, the
west of England and the
Thames Valley; making
journeys faster, reducing
congestion on other routes,
and providing significant
economic benefits for
businesses in the region.
The project also aims to
reduce C02 emissions by the
equivalent of a million road
passenger trips to and from
Heathrow.
Jacobs Group Vice
President Bob Duff stated,
"Jacobs is delighted to
continue to leverage our
global rail experience on this
planned project.
We look forward to
contributing tangible
solutions to support Network
Rail 's emphasis on sustainable
design at the heart of the
new ra il link."
Jacobs delivered prefeas ibility and feasibility
studies in the early
planning stage of the
project which identified
significant potential cost
savings. Currently in public
consultation, if the Western
Rail Access plans are
approved, it is expected that
the new service would be in
operation by 2021.
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~MAPEl.
c~ ~S ~~ RLD
Crossrail breaks initial
apprenticeships target
GREAT BRITAIN- Crossrail
has shot past its target of
taking on 400 apprrentices
after training some 8,000
workers at its east London
tunnelling academy. The East
London Advertiser reports
that some 446 apprentices
had been trained from
scratch as of 1 Apri I.
Speaking earlier this
year, Crossrail's 400th
apprentice Fatima Alghali
. said: "I can't recommend
apprenticeships more highly.
Working on Europe's largest
construction project has
given me an unforgettable
introduction. No two days
are the same, and not only
am I learning from some of
the best engineers in the
industry I will end up with a
qualification that will give
me a great start to a career.
It's also a huge help that you
earn a salary as I'll be debt
free when I qualify."
Terry Morgan, Crossrail
Chairman said: "In 2009
Crossrail made a commitment
to reinvigorate the UK's
tunnelling and construction
skills base with new talent.
I'm delighted that we have
achieved this major milestone
but we will not stop there,
and will continue to create
new apprenticeships as the
project evolves. As a former
apprentice I have seen
first hand how beneficial
apprenticeships are for both
individuals and employers.
Crossrail's approach to skills
training is a model that
can be adopted across the
industry to help deliver the
UK infrastructure projects of
the future."
Crossrail committed
to delivering at least 400
apprenticeships over the
lifetime of the project.
Around two in five
(44 per cent) Crossrail
apprenticeships have been
filled by people that were
previously not in work; a
figure that's double the
UK average. They have
been trained in a range of
professions from construction
to accountancy, quantity
surveying to wsiness
administratior.
More than 4 0,000 people
now start an apji)renticeship
every year in lolildon.
Boosting yout"l emp loyment
is a key priority for the
Mayor and apJrenticeships
are one impo rtant way to
achieve this. ~ioce April
2009,
Transport fur London and
their supplier~ have created
over 5,000 apor~nticeship
roles. While rralily of the
apprentices are n London, a
number are enfioyed across
the UK as a dire:t result
of TfL contracts with other
businesses.
Atlas Copco mvests in

training facWties for
staff
SWEDEN - All:l as Copco
Construction ;nd Mining
service divisio1s have
invested in a ~ange of new
training facili:ies. These
include state mf the art
training simul3tJrs, industryleading activity based offices
and investmert in workshops.
A spokesman said, "In
the mining and :onstruction
industries, eqLiJ>ment
owners contil'"l.lcusly seek to
increase productivity from
their machine; <:nd are now
looking to mam facturers
to provide operator and
service traini~ to increase
performance:
Atlas CopcJ ~ Business
Line Manager fer
Construction Service,
comments: "With our newly
refurbished worl::shops
we are able ta c3rry out
a II kinds of se~vi ce work
from overhau i n;J heavy
hydraulic breakers to
servicing large cnmpressors
and generators. We hold
workshops for d=alers and
customers to :rc;in their
service technieic:ns on how
to maintain our equipment.
These sessions tc:ach them
about our products and more
importantly how to service
and maintain them.
"It's also a good
opportunity for us to
learn how we can help our

customers to get the most
from our machines."
Atlas Copco's Mining
Service Division offers various
driller training programmes.
The training for drill rig
operators takes place on
a drill rig simulator. This
means that any mistakes
the operator makes whilst
training will have no realworld consequences and
drillers can be trained up to
a high standard in a short
space of time, all before they
work on a real-life drill rig.
The new training facilities
have been used to hold
training sessions for staff,
dealers and customers. The
increased focus on training
has been complemented
by the new Activity Based
Working (ABW) style that
allows staff to collaborate,
have meetings and work in
quiet zones depending on
what work they're doing.
Atlas Copco have service
locations throughout the
UK and Ireland including
Heme! Hempstead in England,
Stirling in Scotland and
Portloaise in the Republic of
Ireland. Their service network
includes a network of 25
field based service engineers
located across the UK and
Ireland.
Holborn underground
fire not deliberate,
firefighters say
GREAT BRITAIN- A fire
that caused billows of smoke
and the closing of Kingsway
in London last month was
not started deliberately,
firefighters have said.
An electrical fault
damaged an Sin (200mm)
gas main, which ruptured and
fuelled the fire.
It lasted several days.
Kingsway remained closed as
Tunnels and Tunnelling went
to press, and restrictions were
in place in surrounding roads
today as work continued to
complete repairs.
A robot normally used by
police to investigate suspect
bombs, and heat-seeking
cameras on a helicopter were
used to help put out the

Holborn fire.
The London Fire Bri gade
out Iined the extent of
the challenge it faced in
dealing with the blaze, as
the initial findings from an
investigation confirmed it
was sparked by an electrical
fault in service tunnels
under Kingsway. The brigade
said there was "no sign of
deliberate fire-setting".
Infra-red images from the
police helicopter provided
"invaluable information"
for firefighters on the
ground. The robot was sent
into the tunnels to provide
information to help them
plan how to gain access once
the area was safe.
London fire commissioner
Ron Dobson said: "We
discussed a number of plans
which included using high
expansion foam but as there
was no compartmentation in
the tunnels there was no way
of knowing where the foam
would go and what structural
damage it may have caused.
"As the gas leak was
fuelling the fire it was much
safer to contain it while the
escaping gas was burning off.
If the fire had been put out
before it was isolated it could
have resulted in a build up of
gas over a wide area leading
to possible explosions. An
example is your gas hob
at home, turn the gas on
and light the ring and it is
perfectly safe as long as you
monitor it. but put the fire
out and leave the gas running
and it could result in your
house exploding."
Dobson said the incident
had demonstrated the
challenging nature of some
fires in older cities. "This
technically difficult fire
shows just how complex
London can be and how
unseen risks underground are
significant."
It had been suggested by
media that a recent largescale jewellery heist opposite
the Tunnels and Tunnelling
offices near the Kingsway site
might be linked to the fire,
but this has been rejected by
officials.
lr,
NEWS
I WORLD
Funding packet
announced for
Melbourne Metro ...
AUSTRA LI A- The Labor
Government has announced
AUD 1.5bn (USD 1.19bn)
to cover all anticipated
planning, design and
significant early works ahead
of major construction of the
Melbourne Metro Rail Project
in 2018.
The huge funding injection
provided in the 2015-16
Victorian Budget will allow
the Melbourne Metro Rail
Authority to complete the
reference design, undertake
the statutory planning
process and get this public
transport mega-project
started.
The funding also provides
for land acquisition,
preparation of Expression
of Interest and Request
for Tender documents, and
significant early works such
as tram rerouting and service
relocations, ahead of contract
award and major construction
of the tunnels.
Premier Daniel Andrews
and Minister for Public
Transport, Jacinta Allan,
made the announcement
today at the project's
first geotechnical testing
site since the project was
abandoned by the previous
Liberal government.
Geotechnical investigations
are a key part of planning
and designing the project,
providing critical data about
ground conditions and soil
quality. The information
gathered will inform the
precise alignment, depth and
design of the new rail tunnels
and underground stations.
Over the coming months
140 boreholes will be drilled
between South Kensington
and South Yarra. This
testing builds on previous
geotechnical work undertaken
for Melbourne Metro Rail,
and will be complemented by
site surveying , underground
service identification and
other preparatory works.
A government spokesman
said: "The Melbourne Metro
Rail Project will transform
the region's roail network

into an interllational style
metro system , like London
or New York. t will increase
the capacity, ~el i ability and
efficiency of IJ1elbourne's
busiest train lin-=s, allowing
20,000 more nassengers to
use the train ~y~tem in peak
hour.
Premier ofV ctoria,
Daniel Andrews said, "The
AUD 1.Sbn (USD 1.19bn)
announced today allows us
to design, pla1 and complete
significant ealy works
on Melbourne f\.letro Rail.
Melbourne M-=tro Rail is
the biggest p1.1 blic transport
infrastructure poject in
Australia, and tin e biggest
overhaul of our public
transport sys~111 since the
City Loop."
...as the East West

Link is can.::;elled in a
political ar9ument
AUSTRALIA- -he
Australasian liul'lnelling
Society (ATS) has published
an explanatio1 :o the current
funding situa:ian in Victoria:
The Victoria sra:e government
has announce:rl 3 deal to
formally end : he controversial
AUD 10.7bn CIJSD 8.47bn)
East West p mj e~t. This has
sparked a fur i:JLs response
from the federa l government,
which had com1111itted to AUD
3bn in fundi ~ .
A statememt issued by
prime minister Tony Abbott
said "the Corrmo nwealth
Government i; dismayed
by Victoria 's decision not
to proceed wilth building
the East West L nk", saying
that it "sets a d3ngerous
precedent for fL ture projects
and threatens; fwrther
investment in rruch-needed
infrastructure in our country".
"AUD 3bn frCDm the
Commonweal: h Government
remains on the table for any
Victorian Gov=rnment which
wants to buil cil the East West
Link", the sta:ennent said.
"We will talk to the Victorian
Government <= bmut other
projects, but the truth is
there is no ot:1er major shovel
ready project in Victoria."
Victorian premier
Daniel Andrews and
treasurer Tim Pallas said a
Heads of Agreement had
been signed which will
see the projects assets
transferred to the state,
without any compensation
to the companies in the
construction consortium.
AUD 339M covering the bid
process, design and preconstruction activities will
not be retrieved.
However, a report in the
Financial Review said "the
total cost the government of
the abandoned project stands
at more than AUD 900M".
AUD 81 M of fees were
incurred to establish the
Project Co credit facility of
AUD 3bn. Andrews said the
state intends to negotiate
with the banks to take over
that facility to contribute
to funding for the proposed
Melbourne Metro Rail
Project.
In February, the Melbourne
Metro Rail Authority was
established by the new
government. Since then it
has conducted planning and
technical work to determine
the most appropriate route
and depth for 9km twin
tunnels running under
Melbourne's CBD.
The day after the East
West Link announcement,
the Victoria minister for
transport Jacinta Allan
said the investigations had
determined that a route
under Swanston Street was
the most cost-effective
option. A key challenge is
how the new tunnels will
interact with the existing
City Loop.
The planning work has
determined that "building
the tunnel above the City
Loop at a depth of around
10m- instead of below
the City Loop at more than
40m - is the best option for
commuters".
Other factors include
safety in the event of an
emergency and efficiency
in construction. With the
preferred route identified,
more detailed investigations
will now be conducted.
Safety concerns over

Hai Van Pass Tunnel
Upgrade proposal
VIET NAM - A project to
expand the Hai Van Tunnel's
emergency lane into a main
tunnel has drawn safety
concerns. LeVan Trung,
director of the Da Nang City
Department of Transport. said
he supports a project to build
another tunnel through the
Hai Van Pass to cope with
the increasing traffic volume,
but is concerned by the
implications of the loss of a
safety tunnel.
According to local
media, investors had already
dismissed this option as too
costly. And Nguyen Dinh
Bach, general director of Hai
Van Tunnel Management
and Operation Corporation
disagreed with safety
concerns, saying that even
afte r the emergency lane is
turned into another main
tunnel, there would be 'no
hindrance' to rescue activity
as the current main tunnel
and the new one would
sti II be connected by cross
passages after the upgrade.
The existing tunnel
opened in 2005. The single
bore runs 6.3km at 12m in
diameter but has a safety and
maintenance tunnel alongside
it connected by 15 cross
passages.
It was constructed by
a joint venture of Japan's
Hazama Corporation and
Cienco 6 of Vietnam.
If approved, the project
should kick off in January
next year and finish in the
first quarter of 2019. It is
expected to cost USD 300M.
What do you think?

Send your views
to the editor and join
the debate
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THE
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P ICTU RE/
NE W S
Left: Over the

weekend of
Apri/17-20,
in the early
morning hours,
Crosstown
Transit
Constructors,
a joint venture
ofObayashi
Canada, Kenny
Construction,
Kenaidan
Contracting
and Technicore
Underground,
extracted the
two TBfvts that
have been
tunnelling
the western
segment of
Toronto's
Crosstown's
underground
section, from a
shaft located
just west of
Allen Road.
M ay 2015
I Tunnels I 19
ti l
[-
~ ~;-;
M E R I C A / --;-; G I 0 N A L F 0
C~S
SAN FRANClSCO
SUCCESS
ROJECT MANAGER Ed Whitman can be forgiven some
slight boasting about the contractor's team on the new
Bay tunnel crossing, declaring that "we had the right
amount of planning and set ourselves up for a fast production
level extremely well." The project is after all several months
ahead on completion time and with a fmal cost of USD 288M
also less expensive than its estimated USD 313M.
Whitman is half-joking and only makes these restrained
comments later in an interview in response to a fair question.
As well as credit for the joint venture of Michels/ Jay Dee/
Coluccio, he says a good design by consultant Jacobs
Engineering, and project collaboration with the client San
Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) all helped the
work go well.
But he is also entitled to plaudits for a relatively difficult
tunnel that faced mixed soft and hard ground with potential
hazardous materials like asbestos, strong environmental
challenges above ground, seismic complications, and logistic
constraints working from one end only of a 5-mile (8km) long
bore, 15ft (4.6m) in diameter (see TEtTI June 2011 ). Added
difficulties included installation of a steel pipeline within
the tunnel, embedded in a seismic resistant cellular concrete
internal lining.
The project is a component element of a USD 4.6bn Water
System Improvement Project designed in part to ensure
earthquake resistance to water supplies in the San Mateo
peninsula, the central part of San Francisco to the south of the
Golden Gate Bridge, where there is a 2.5 million population.
lt repairs and replaces old pipelines across the bay originally
installed for similar reasons after the devastating 1906
earthquake, upgrading the so-called 1-letch 1-letchy system to
modern seismic standards.
The tunnel component is the first bore ever made
underneath the Bay - the old pipes sit on the bed - and so the
geology was a relative unknown. Test drill probes indicated
mostly clay but with embedded sand lenses up to 2ft thick
(0.6m) and there was an outcrop of the San Francisco complex,
harder ground up to 1,400 psi in strength (1OMPa), running for
some 800ft (250m).
"We also had an unknown area underneath the Salt Pans,"
Whitman says. These are areas in the shallows of the Bay edges,
divided into evaporation basins for the extraction of mineral
salts of all kinds, used for industrial purposes. lt is an industry
present over the last century or so and one of the largest such
in the world . The pans are divided by berms built on relatively
soft Bay mud and the owners feared the impact of heavy
drilling equipment could create instabilities. "They hold back a
lot of brine, " he says.
ln the event the ground 120ft (36.6m) underneath proved
to be a similar clay to the rest, as expected.
First of the key decisions was choice of a tunnelling
machine to cope with these clays, wet sands and the Franciscan
complex, known to be harder but which is very heterogeneous
with metamorphic components and even volcanic basalts and
therefore capable of delivering surprises.
The choice was an EPB Tl3M made by Japan's 1-litachiZosen, with a cutterhead designed primarily for th e soft ground
www. tu.nnelsonline. info
The first v.vater passed through the Skmlong San =ran cisco Bay Tunnel in October
2014, well ahead of an original 2015
schedule. The project also came in well
under budget, Adrian Greeman
Adrian Greeman
Is a former ecfltor of and long-standing
regular con triJutor to Tunnels and Tunnelling
288
Million dollars i ~
the fina l cost of the
tunnel, and Uld':r
budget
The tunnel's lc:n gth

in miles, whic1 had
only one end =rem
which to worf:
Opposite: Moving
one of the 40r.long pipe sp.Jols
Below: The TBM
operator spea~s
with project stJ.ff
but fitted additionally with shell bits for

harder rock.
"They are like rippers but with a
concave shape like a seashell," Whitman
explains. "We went for Star Alloy cutters
which are harder and they performed by
well. We had a few interventions but saw
no need for replacements and in fact
went through the rock zone with almost
no wear on the cutterhead."
Guidance was done with a Japanese
Enzon system, recommended by 1-litachi,
which uses a system of robotic total
station and TBM mounted prisms to
track the machine in relation to fixed
prisms further back along the tunnel
line. lt also pulls data from the machine
systems he says to give actual and
planned locations.
1-le says the entire TBM setup went
very well and he is pleased with the
machine performance overall declaring
it to be, "well built and one of the best
machines 1 have worked on. "
Challenges along the way included
getting used to the clay which was
I r,
R E G 1 o N A L F o c u s 1 N o R T H !-.
rA
unexpectedly stiff, so much so it could

not be broken with shovels in the starter
pit excavation and tended at first to
emerge from the pressure chamber screw
conveyors as "one long log".
Some juggling with conditioning was
needed as both polymers and bentonite
made no difference.
ln the end the team found a
stabilised grout, being mixed for the
injection behind the segments, worked

quite well. lt was a cement, water,
bentonite mixture with stabilising
additives which kept the mix "live" for
almost a month. The next problem
however was tackling the sand lenses.
Unlike the impermeable and dry clay the
spoil was full of water and tended to
emerge as a "slop".
Whitman says, "The difficulty was to
change the conditioning in time because
the operator would hit a lens and fill the
chamber before he knew it. "
"The sand 'slop' disrupted the
balancing air bubble in the chamber and
then if it built up to the extraction screw
air would travel at some velocity and
splatter everything," he adds.
The problem was partly due to the
choice of twin extraction screws which
were designed with an open spiral rather
than one around a spine shaft. The
shape gives a higher capacity, which the
contractor wanted for speed of operation
but has less friction to resist such surges.
The trick was judicious use of calliper
gates mounted between the two screws
which are set one behind the other, and
a guillotine gate at the end.
Further spoil problems were faced in
the harder ground which tended to come
out in long slivers that could jam the
open screw configuration. Slowing the
drive rate helped deal with that.
Another challenge was to balance
the forward pressure of the machine for
E R 1c A
AbJII'e: A crew
member inspects
theTBM
speed with requirements of grouting at the back. As on many

smaller tunnels, the six segment universal ring was grouted
through the segments, using the cast in lifting holes.
"Too much pressure could squeeze material along the
shield into the annulus," Whitman says, "so you had to juggle
that. " Grout wa s injected into the ring as it emerged from the
machine, with sodium silicate admixture to undo the stabiliser
effect and set it.
Segments were from a factory in Stockton, just a 90-minute
truck drive away. They were produced by subcontractor Traylor
Shea who conveniently had just completed a tunnel project in
Sacramento and had spare precast capacity. Steel moulds came
from France. The segments used a steel fibre reinforcement
which was fine, says Whitman, "though it leaves the segments
slightly more prone to breakage - they are not made of glass
of course, but cracks propagate in a way they don't with a
cage. We had to be careful handling them. "
There were a few broken units, but not many and only one
ring had to be re-done, he says. On site they were lowered into
the shaft by a gantry crane, a specially fast unit custom built
for the project by American Cranes "at some expense, " says
Whitman ruefully. From the bottom they were delivered to the
machine by a rail system.
As with all the decisions on the project Michels/ Jay Dee/
Coluccio had this designed with an eye to production speed ,
and it could carry two full rings at a time, with the TBM backup train able unload and store them .
"That way the machine would not find itself waiting for
rings, " Whitman says, "even at the end of the drive when the
single track haul train was making a full 8km trip and back to
the starter shaft. "
The train used electric locomotives, also Japanese, which
Whitman says proved just right, the batteries lasting long
enough to last through an entire 10-hour shift before
recharging was needed. Spoil removal meanwhile was done
with a conveyor, leaving the tracks clear for deliveries. Inside
the tunnel this was a Goodyear system, brought in from a
previous location. lt ran up the side of the shaft side to a
motor at the top. But the spoil was tripped off the belt at the
shaft base to be picked up be a vertical belt. This was carefully
thought out too . "We looked at various systems including a
sloped cutting or tunnel out of the shaft but decided to use a
vertical conveyor. But the usual bucket type could have been a
problem, because of the sticky nature of the spoil."
The team used a relatively new "box" design from Japanese
maker tlirosawa, which has "accordion style" pleated sides that
can grip the spoil for the lift and then more easily discharge it
at the top. From there it ran another 500ft (130m) to a spoil
"Too much pressure could
along the shield
squeeze material
into the annulus, you have to
jug,Jie that."
handling pit again on a Goodyear line, with mobile placer
conveyors to distribute it around a large "bean-shaped " pit.
"We used a big area because the final disposal sites were at
the edge of the bay on marshy ground, and they could have
problems in bad weather, " he says, having to shut for perhaps
some days so there had to be room to stockpile.
The tips are part of a major environmental reclamation
around the Bay, which is restoring some of the old salt pan
areas to the condition thought to represent the original natural
state. lt will all make up part of the Don Edwards wildlife
refuge, first of its kind in California. Just under 300 species of
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birds are likely to use it. The big spoil area came in useful for
the harder ground spoil. lt had been anticipated that this could
be contaminated with natural asbestos, requiring segregation,
and disposal to special sites. ln the event there was less than
expected.
"But instead we found naturally occurring heavy metals like
chromium, cobalt, an caesium," Whitman says, "and we had
to treat the spoil separately for that reason." lt took 24 hours
to test each batch from a 100ft (35m) of drive to see if it was
safe or not. While the tunnelling was underway the contractor
was also figuring out the end point shaft excavation. The
start shaft, made back in 2010 when the work began, had
been difficult enough. lt used diaphragm (slurry) walls and
excavation inside under water to the 120ft (36m) tunnel depth,
and required divers to complete.
"At that depth they can only work for 40 minutes before
going through decompression, and then waiting for a 24-hour
period for the next job," Whitman says.
The 27ft (8.3m) wide end shaft had constraints on its
location. On one side it was close to the environmentally
protected area and the designer, fearful of potential spillages,
wanted to keep it as far away as possible. But the other side
was close to the old pipeline, running on trestles and in a
sensitive condition. The contractor felt a redesign was possible,
allowing a reduction in size to 20ft (6.1m), sufficient to take
out the core part of the TBM if the shield was made sacrificial
and left in the ground. That gave a bit of space but even so
the heavy loads of diaphragm wall rigs were thought too much,
as would be a caisson.
"We opted for ground freezing instead using a brine
system," Whitman says. The hardened ground was carved out
with a roadheader in 5ft increments lined with ribs and lagging
before a permanent concrete wall.
The shaft was then used to remove the main parts of the
TBM, which finished its drive in January 2014, six months
ahead of schedule, having averaged 34ft (10.5m) a day and
peaking at 220ft (67.7m). From both ends, the tunnel had
to be cleared not just of the long TBM train but also of rails,
conveyor and so forth, to make way for the second phase
of the job, installation of the pipeline. The water line is an
embedded pipe sealed within a concrete jacket that protects
against expected seismic shock in this most vulnerable of
areas. lt also gives corrosion protection, particularly by using
a PFA rich mixture for the concrete design, explains Jacobs
Engineering construction manager Robert Mues.
AMERICA
Below:
Completed
tunnel before
installing th2
welded steel
pipeline
REGIONAL
FOCUS
The alignment deliberately does not

cross the two major faults along the Bay
but is close to them and future shocks.
lnstalling the pipeline has also been
complex. First the 9ft (2.8m) diameter
pipe has to be assembled within the
tunnel from the 40ft-long spiral welded
sections delivered. lt then has to be
welded into a single string, and finally
embedded by filling the 18in (460mm)
annulus with concrete.
This can be difficult enough above
ground where at least the joining
operation can be done from the outside,
obviously not possible in a tunnel.
"The challenge is that pipes that
length behave like wet Chinese noodles,"
Whitman says. To keep each length stiff
and properly positioned for welding a
special "pipe placer" unit is used, "like a
long travelling beam a bit bigger than a
pipe length ."
These are used commonly though
the JV had its own tailor made version
built, and in fact modified after a few
initial runs highlighted some flaws in its
operation . The unit has to travel through
the pipe, and then pick up the next
delivered string from the tunnel floor
and hold it in position for welding. This
is not easy as high precision is required
firstly and secondly, the roundness of the
pipe has to be exact.
"The pipes tend to go out of shape
and so there is a pipe rounder, looking
rather like a TBM gripper but all around
the inside of the pipe." Whitman says.
"This holds the pipe shape against a
backer plate slid over the joint against
which the welders can then join the two
sections."
But this work is fraught too. "You
can easily get a 'wave' in the pipe steel,
running ahead of the weld which causes
problems as you finish," he explains. The
possible distortion can also arise from
temperature differences expanding the
steel as it is welded. "So first you have to
stitch the weld to hold it."
Once all this is done the pipe have
to be carefully positioned inside the
tunnel, supported on stools at intervals
with screw jack adjusters to make sure it
is centrally placed. Stiffeners inside the
pipe are positioned exactly against the
outside stools to prevent loads buckling
the pipe.
"Then you backfill the entire length
in one go," Mues says, "which is also
problematical because of buoyancy
effects as the grout travels along the
annulus."
A series of grout fillings lifts were
used to minimise the effects and the
pipe was finally completed in the
autumn last year 1"\
May 2015
I Tunnels I 25
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~-
-NORTI-
AMER IC A/
REGIONAL
FOCUS
HARBOUR RESCUE
At a harbour-side jobsite in New York, USA crews are smoothly wrapping up a
successful water tunnel project. The journey to TBM breakthrough in January
2015, however, was anything but smooth. Robbins tecrnical writer Desiree
Willis reports
Desiree V.lillis
N OCTOBER 2012, New York's 1-l arbour Siphons Project and
its 3.8m (12.5ft) CAT EPB ground to a halt when hit by
Superstorm Sandy. Despite contractor Tully/01-lL JV's best
efforts to mitigate anticipated flood risks, the launch shaft was
inundated with seawater, flooding the tunnel and TBM just
460m (1,500ft) into the 2.9km (l.Bmi) long drive. A team of
Robbins and 01-lL personnel were able to document, reverse
engineer, and refurbish severely corroded components of the
TBM while in the tunnel, resulting in a successful re-launch
in April 2014. The 1-lerculean efforts required by all of those
involved are documented herein.
REDESIGNING THE CHANNEL

Construction of the siphon tunnel is part of a much larger
project. The Anchorage Channel, an integral part of the
shipping trade with access to New York 1-larbour and the
rest of the Port of New York and New Jersey, is one of the
more heavily used water transportation arteries in the world.
Future cargo volumes are expected to double over the next
decade and possibly quadruple in 40 years. The channel must
be deepened in order to accommodate the new generation of
cargo mega-ships, which have drafts that exceed 14m/46ft
(the present depth of Anchorage Channel), and ensure the
City's ability to benefit from the anticipated increase in this
sector of the economy.
Using funding authorised by the Federal government, the
Port Authority of New York New Jersey (PANYNJ) and the
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE) proceeded
with dredging operations to deepen the Anchorage Channel
to 15m (49ft) below mean low water over a length of 5,800m
(19,000ft), from the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge to the channel's
confluence with the Port Jersey Channel.
Desiree has c:>vered a range of topics for

Tunnels, as RJbbins' technical writer
ln order to complete their project,

however, the two existing siphons
owned by NYCEDC had to be removed,
ultimately requiring replacement by a
larger tunnel. The new siphon required
a 3.6m (11 .8ft) diameter, 2,883m
(9,458ft) long tunnel. NYCEDC was
responsible for the construction of the
USD 300M project on behalf of the New
York City Department of Environmental
Protection.
The new siphon will be finished with
a backfilled 1.2m welded-steel water
pipe. Full backfill around the riser pipes
in the shafts will also be installed. Water
1
transmission mains connecting the
Below (left):
I tunnel to the existing system will be
constructed in open cut. Microtunneling
Figure 1, Location
of proposec'
machines will drive two additional
crossings, about 99m and 37m long,
siphon in Ne ....
under the Staten lsland Railroad.
York, USA
Once the new tunnel is complete, the
Right: The
existing siphons will be decommissioned
and abandoned. The new tunnel will
3.8m EPBM,
manufactured
by Caterpil2a>,
was launched. in
August 2012
Staten
Island
r") l
I r,
R E G 1o N A L F o c
us 1
N o RT H
r-. rA E R 1 c A
serve as a backup to the 900ft deep

Richmond main water tunnel that
was built under the harbour between
Brooklyn to Staten Island in th e 1960s
through hard rock.
STARTUP AND FLOOD

Tully/OHL USA JV procured a 3.8m
(12.5ft) diameter EPB TBM from
Caterpillar in 2012 to bore the new
siphon tunnel. The TBM , dubbed
"Pat", was designed to drive through
highly variable clays, sands, weathered
rock and boulders. "The contract
allowed for both EPB and Slurry. The
geology of the project, with around
75 per cent excavation in clay, was
more favorable for an EPB machine,"
said Luis Alonso, Tunnel Manager for
OHL. It was launched from the 35m
(115ft) deep Staten Island shaft, boring
towards the 40m (131ft) deep Brooklyn
shaft, in August 2012. An onsite crew
from the local tunneling union, known
as the Sandhogs, assisted OHL in the
tunnel construction.
The project started off well , but
in October 2012, the unexpected
happened : a massive hurricane, dubbed
Superstorm Sandy, barreled down on
the U.S. East Coast with winds up to
145 kph (90 mph) . Extreme flooding at
the waterfront jobsite in Staten Island
overtopped protective concrete barriers
that had been designed 1m (3ft) above
the 100-year flood level. Seawater
rushed into the tunnel and the nearly
113m (370ft) long machine was entirely
submerged after boring only a few
components such
as tlhe PLC had
tote ::ompletely
reb..!i:tfrom the
gro'!.Lr.d up
Lef:::: Figure 4,
A tun<el worker
checks the TBM
as iit begins
bolin::7 into the
slurr!!' wall of
the e:r:it shaft,
Jar.uIry 2015
hundred meters. "Obviously this was our biggest challenge,"

said Alonso. "After that, not many people thought we would be
able to finish this tunnel. " The damage extended beyond just
the jobsite-much of Staten Island is a designated flood zone
and many businesses, homes, and major pieces of infrastructure
had been substantially compromised.
"It was a shock for us," continued Alonso. "No one could
imagine something like that happening." After floodwaters
began to recede and some additional water had been pumped
from the tunnel, OHL set about determining the extent of
damage on the machine. There had been one cutterhead
intervention just two weeks prior to the flood, so there was
some confidence that even though the machine had been
stalled in the tunnel at earth pressure, the cutterhead would be
in good shape. Crews entered the tunnel to do analyses of the
bearing cavity and rotary union.
The TBM was determined to be severely corroded by
saltwater, and extensive rebuild would be needed. The machine
sat idle until July 2013. During that time, CAT announced its
impending closure of its TBM business, and the contractor
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looked to other manufacturers. "01-IL was always determined

to nnish this project. After studying other options, we decided
to proceed with the full refurbishment of the TBM . The whole
crew worked together to achieve that goal," said Alonso.
EXTENSIVE REBUILD
Robbins arrived onsite in July 2013 to begin the assessment.
The general plan for the refurbishment centered on removing
the rear eleven gantries and belt conveyor from the tunnel
and shipping them by truck to an offsite facility where
the backup gear could be completely cleaned, evaluated
and repaired. The remaining two gantries, screw conveyor,
segment erector, stationary shield and forward shield would
have to be refurbished onsite in the tunnel. The segmented
concrete lining would not permit the removal of these items.
Per the scope of work, the cutterhead and main bearing of
the TBM were excluded from the refurbishment, as they were
under earth pressure and not accessible. The Robbin team
would need to complete the refurbishment taking into account
unknowns, such as the condition of the cutterhead, and the
thrust cylinders, as the machine had stalled at pressure with the
thrust cylinders retracted.
The parties involved set about immediately on a twopronged approach of shipping the removed equipment to
the manufacturer's facility in Solon, Ohio and organising a
plan for the onsite refurbishment of the remaining items. By
early August, the gantries were back in Solon and production
was proceeding to inspect and disassemble equipment in
order to evaluate and order items where necessary. Onsite,
local 15 mechanics and local 147 sandhogs worked diligently
identifYing, disassembling and evaluating system components.
"We had to be absolutely vigilant about the earth pressure
of 3 bar, as we were doing much of the rework inside the
tunnel. There were some components we were simply not
able to reach, such as the screw conveyor doors and guillotine
door, as these were under pressure," said Roger Cope, Robbins
Field Service Technician, who was at the site throughout the
refurbishment until breakthrough. Major failed components,
such as grout pumps, drive motors and propulsion hydraulic
blocks were shipped by truck back to Solon for repair, while
less complicated items were ordered for shipment directly to
site. Additionally, a local hydraulic supply house was selected
to provide onsite hose making capabilities up through 50mm (2
inches) diameter. ln this way, replacement of worn hoses could
be produced as needed, saving precious time.
AMERICA
Above: Figuie 5,
Workers fro:n the
Sandhogs u niJn
take a mom;?r.t
to celebrate a:;
the EPB hits tlt.e
slurry wall of
the exit shaJ""tthe start of -':h3
final stretch cif
tunneling- in
January 20i5
Above (right):
Figure 6, A
tunnel work;?r
cleans the tunnel
invert behind : he
REGIONAL
FOCUS
By September, 2013, the gantries

in Solon were being rentted, while
onsite the bulk of the evaluations were
complete and workers turned to cleaning
and re-hosing the forward shields and
nrst two gantries. Steel components
of the machine were stripped with
abrasives, then sanded and repainted.
1-lowever, the challenges were just
beginning.
TBM .
REVERSE ENGINEERING
The Robbins crew was additionally
contracted to guide onsite personnel
in replacing corroded hydraulic
components and all new electricalfrom Variable Frequency Drives to PLCs
and wiring-inside the small tunnel.
"We had some manuals, but no
autoCAD drawings and no supporting
materials from the manufacturer. We
had to identity each component and
reorder it. The PLC took the longest
by far," said Bogdan Tudor, Robbins
Field Service Technician. Essentially
the crew had to observe how the TBM
worked and create a detailed report to
redesign the system from the ground
up-from the segment operation to
steering control and more.
One major difference was the steering
between Robbins EPBs and CATdesigned EPBs. "Robbins EPBMs use
quadrant steering. The CAT machine,
however, had 16 cylinders, each
independently operating with its own
controller." That required researching
~I
[n----; E~;-;~~U~/
NORTH
f...rJ1E RI ~
-- --
-]
the size, features and location of the cyli nd ers, which were
eventually placed in the lower quadrant of the propulsion
system," said Alonso.
After installing the 50-ton auxiliary cylinders in the lower
propulsion system, crews were able to re-establish forward
progress but at a reduced rate. The TBM pushed on, but in
early October the project was faced with another hurdle. The
machine encountered a pocket of glacia l soils comprised of
larger, hard stones. The hardened material led to tool failure
and the TBM was stalled for the majority of November while a
hyperbaric intervention at 4 bar was performed to install new
tooling. With the intervention complete and a new dressing
of rippers install ed, the TBM began mining aga in in late
November. Despite the obstacles, the crew was able to steadily
increase the rate of excavation to 5 to 7 rings per day.
Once mining was reestablished, the TBM faced a final
critical crossing beneath Belt Parkway, a busy thoroughfare
and designi ng a system the team was
initially unfamiliar with, in addition
to other challenges. "There were other
things like the flowmeters, which
monitor critical flows in the lube system,
that weren't responding. The physical
components of the meters interact with
a card, and we determined that since
we had gotten a new PLC from another
manufacturer, the original cards didn 't
interact with it. We needed to determine
which ca rds wou ld interact with the PLC
and replace them, " said Tudor. The entire
conversion and rebuild of the electrica l
system required a team of six electricians
and took about four months.
THE RESTART
In the fma l phase of the refurbishment,
a Robbins PLC technician was able
to complete the commissioning of
the TBM and on April 14, 2014 the
machine officially returned to mining.
To ensure continued success, the
team rema in ed on site to support
ongoing maintenance of the TBM .
In the coming months, the machine
performance steadily increased,
eventually reaching as hi gh as 100ft
(30.48 m) per day in August 2014. This
resu lt-the equivalent of 25 rings in 24
hours-significantly outperformed the
machine as designed before the flood ,
which had a maximum of 16 rings per
day (segment rings are 5+ 1 precast
concrete, 1.2m in length).
By August, the project appeared
to be on target for a mid-September
completion. However, in early
September, ground conditions changed
from marine sediments (day, silt and
sand) to glacial geology with sand,
exceptionally hard boulders, and
excessive water ingress, resulting in slow
propulsion rates. "The TBM needed m ore
thrust and we decided to implement four
additional auxilia ry cylinders. Robbins
field service helped in developing
32
I Tunnels I May 2015
Above (left):
Fig'llr'e 7, The
harbour-side
job5ite, now
rebiUilt, was
inl.l!11dated by
Supe-storm
Sa mdy in 2072
whenflood
barri;lrs that
were designed
as
~m
built on sensitive harbour-sid e soils. Monitors were installed

in the roadway and around critical utilities including a highpressure gas lin e to make sure settlement remained within the
set parameters as the machi ne passed 34m (112ft) below. As
crews mined , they injected polymer to main tain a smooth flow
of mu ck and consistent earth pressure, while pre-mixed single
component grout was used for backfill of the annu lar gap.
The grout was delivered via grout pumps to ports behind the
segments at the edge of the tail shield. Ultimately, the crossing
was successful and monitored settlement was well within
specified limits.
above
the 100-year
floCi>d level were
overtopped by
seCIIWf! ter
Above (right):
Fig :.tre 8, Precast
cor crete
seg;ments being
tra<s,Jorted into
the t unnel to
build the final
rings January
201!5
BREAKTHROUGH
By 24 January 2015 the machine had mined through the first
1m thick slurry wa ll of the exit shaft. Its completion poi nt
was just beyond the sand-fl11ed exit shaft, past a second
slurry wa ll where the TBM would be buried . The fina l metres
were completed days later on 28 January. The completion of
the project marks the first successful excavation by an EPB in
the NYC area.
"This tunnel is an important part of a larger project, and
we are proud to be doing what we do every day, dealing with
troubles as they come up, until we reach the end of the drive,"
said Alonso.
"With tunneling complete, the stationary and tail shields
were buried at the exit shaft entrance, with the cutterhead and
back-up removed r,
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MO DELLI NG
/TECHNICAL
THE ROlE OF
lNVERSE ANAlYSlS lN
TUNNEl DESlGN
In this paper, Angelos Gakis, Stephen Flynn, Ali Nas.ekhian, and Panagiotis
Spyridis, all of Dr Sauer Et Partners look at the use of inJerse analysis of
finished tunnel structures, and the verification of models in modern tunnel
design. This article also uses the underground structure3 of Crossrail's
Farringdon Station in London, UK as a case study to illustrate the process
N MODERN design of complex

tunn ellin g projects it is best practice
to utilise 3D nnite element analysis
(3D FEA), its main advantage being
the ability to capture the impact of
the actual constructio n processes and
the very significant three-dimensional
effects. The latter may incl ude the effect
of tu nn els constructed in close proximity,
the interaction with existin g structures
and the non-homogeneity of the ground
conditions.
On the other hand, 2D nnite element
analyses (20 FEA) can be employed
for the execution of simp lined, qui ck
models which , as lon g as the engineer
is fu lly aware of the assumptions and
the limitations involved, can prove to
be a very useful means of calibrating,
supplementing and in some cases
substituting the demanding 30 models.
An important question at the
beginning of a design project is therefore
which type of analysis should be applied.
To provide a case example, the authors
will consider Crossrail 's Farringdon
underground station which is presented
in the fo llowi ng sections.
The Crossrail project comprises a
combination of long TBM drives forming
the running tunnels with sprayed
concrete lined (SCL) tu nn els forming
the station layouts. ln prin ciple for such
a project, 20 FEA can be used for the
design of the running tunnels but insid e
the footprint of the stations, 30 FEA
are necessary for the aforementioned
reasons.
There are additional aspects of the
design that may need to be considered,
such as:
E"'tbound platform (P1'N)
Above: Figure
7, Farringdon
Station layout
Below: Figure
2, Typical
excavation
and support
sequence
showing the
typical layout
of a monitoring
cross section. It
is 17.35m wide
by 10.66m high
(excavation line)
weight of several parameters

Coupled effective stress/pore water pressure analysis
Consolid a:icn analysis
Advanced ccnstitutive soil models
Advanced ccncrete models
Excavatiom ~e quence (i.e. exact simulation of face divisions
for SCL ttmrnels)
However, -e8listically these ca nn ot all be incorporated in a

30 FEA due 10 the limited time fra mes and resources.
The folloV"irg sections present a combin ation of 30 and 20
FEA that has been used to back analyse the actual performance
of the SCL tunnels.
The nndin.g~ of this exercise as well as the importance of the
inverse a naly~.is in tunnel design are highlighted in the context
of practical FE 11odellin g.
SCL r--imary lining (min 400mm)
Sensitivity analyses to assess the
May 20 15 I Tunnels I 35
~ ~
I r,
TEcH N IC A L
M 0 D ELL I N G
THE ROLE OF INVERSE

ANALYSIS
Inverse or back analysis is a commonly
used practice in civil engineering,
widely applied in slope stability
problems and could be deftned as
the execution of an analysis (ftnite
element, limit equilibrium etc) where
the problem parameters are varied
accordingly until a known result is
derived. These parameters that lead
to the correct (or known) solution are
called 'back analysed' and the model is
accordingly calibrated.
A good example on the application
of the back ana lysis with respect to the
3D effects in slope stability comes from
Duncan and Wright 121. A slope stability
problem is in most cases analysed
using 2D limit equilibrium an alyses (or/
and FEA) where a factor of safety is
calculated.
However, this approach excludes
the very important 3D effect, i.e. the
geometrical characteristics of the slope
and the side shear (ratio width/length).
ln a normal analysis, excluding these
factors would result in the calculation of
a conservative factor of safety.
However, in a back analysis
(where the slope has failed and the
factor of safety is unity), exclusion
of the 3D effects would result in
higher soil parameters along the slip
plane, therefore in an unconservative
assessment
Similar considerations are valid
for tunnel design. Inverse analysis in
tunnelling projects can be performed
by varying parameters appropriately
in order to derive the deformations
observed through in-tunnel or surface
level monitoring. The parameters that
can be varied in a ftnite elements model
may include the strength/stiffness of the
soil or concrete, the simulation steps, the
geometry of the ftnite elements mesh
etc.
Two very important aspects that the
authors would like to make note of are:
Initial Deformation
Levelling out
Stable
Time
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Abm.>e: Figure 3,
Typical phases
in " time plot
of-.:he in-tunnel
dej ormations
should be in a natural scale range.

The back analysis should not try to be conservative or
uncoservative but simply should try to replicate the actual
beh aviour as closely as possible.
CASE STUDY: FARRINGDON STATION

Farringdon station will provide interchange between Crossrail,
London Underground and Thameslink rail networks. During
its construction, an important role that the station had was
the reception of the two westbound and eastbound TBMs.
The station was constructed at approximately 30m below
street level and comprised two ticket halls that provided
connection to the platform level via two escalator inclines with
subsequent concourse tunnels, two platform tunnels enlarged
from the already constructed TBM tunnels, approximately
300m long each, and multiple cross passages and ventilation
tunnels.
The main contractor Bam, Ferrovial, Kier joint venture (BFK),
was awarded th e contract (C435) by Crossrail. BFK employed Dr
Sauer Et Partners (DSP) as their SCL specialist.
Two special features related with Farringdon Station were:
The construction phasing of the platform tunnels: they were
enlarged using SCL methods from the existing TBM tunnels.
The tunnels were constructed mainly in the Lambeth
Group formation, a mixture of very stiff over consolidated
Clays which constituted an excellent open face tunnelling
medium with the exceptions of the interbedded sand lenses
with water pressures that added a certain level of difficulty
and risk to the SCL tunnelling operations.
IN-TUNNEL MONITORING ANALYSIS

The variation of the parameters
The deformations of the approximately 1km of SCL tunnels
MODELLING/
TECHNICA <~~
Above (left):
Figure 4a, FE
design modei cf
West Ticket P/CJJI.I
Above (right):
Figure 4b, SCL
access shaft area
Left: Figure 4c
Model of Eas ~
Ticket Hall
in Farringdon station were monitored using a high precision

total station to survey monitoring targets. These targets
were installed at predefined monitoring cross sections (MCS)
generally spaced every 10m.
The typical layout of a platform tunnel monitoring cross
section is shown in Figure 2 (page 35).
Absolute deformations of each target were acquired on a
daily interval following the construction of the tunnel section
at that chainage.
Three phases can be distinguished in a typical time plot of
the in-tunnel deformations as shown in Figure 3:
The initial deformation phase starts with the first readings
and lasts for three to five days, exhibiting almost linearly
increasing deformations with time.
The levelling out phase starts with the ring closure, where
the in-tunnel deformations clearly start levelling out and
lasts for another three to five days.
The stable phase then follows where in the absence of
subsequent tunnel excavation in the proximity, only minor
fluctuations of the readings are expected.
These fluctuations are not related to actual lining
deformation but are a result of other factors such as the
monitoring accuracy, temperature changes, construction
vibrations etc.
Right: Figure <fd,

Triple connect.on
to the East TicP.et
Hall
Table 2 (see below).
A very dense network of compensation grouting arrays (tuba-manchettes or TaMs) was installed in Farringdon, covering a
large portion of the station 's footprint.
ln order to exclude the effect of compensation grouting
in this paper, the average in-tunnel deformations of the parts
of the two platform tunnels (Eastbound and Westbound) that
were not covered by TaMs were derived and summarised in
Table 2 . Average in-tunnel deformations in TaM-free sections
Average Vertical Displacements
Average Transverse Oisplacemen -.:s
~~
~~
M1
M2/M3
M4/M5
M1
M2/M3
M4/M5
12
13
13
4.0
7.5
Source: D~ Souer & Portners
3D FE DESIGN MODELS
Due to computational efficiency
reasons, a decision was made to
divide the temporary SCL tunnels in
Farringdon into separate, smaller 3D
FE models. The four main models are
shown in Figure 4, namely the West
ticket hall area model, the East ticket
hall area model , the SCL access shaft
area model and the triple connection
to the East ticket hall.
These individual models were created
to address and tackle particular design
, issues and challenges. Three dimensional
modelling provided an opportunity to
consider the 3D effects of tunnelling
in the course of construction, ground/
structure interaction, face stability
deriving information regarding volume
loss and ground movement without
subjective assumptions.
The purpose of the 3D FE design
analyses in this project was to dimension
the lining thickness at complex
situations (e.g. a triple junction, when at
a close close proximity to other tunnels
etc), to optimise the temporary works
excavation sequences and providing
trigger values for monitoring purposes.
ABAQUS Version 6.12 (Dassault
Systemes Simulia)i'J a general purpose
finite element software package was
used to perform the numerical analyses.
E Tc
E
HNI
cA L I
M~ E L L I N G
Soil materials were modelled with the

elastic-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb
model. For the purpose of the primary
SCL design no groundwater pressure was
applied in the analysis since the primary
lining is not considered to be watertight.
Undrained soil parameters were taken for
the analysis in order to account for the
'fast' construction effects in comparison
to the time of consolidation in the
London Clay.
The numerical analyses have been
undertaken on the basis of a total stress
analysis. Both undrained shear strength
(Cu) and Young's modulus (Eu) of the
clay stratums increased linearly with
depth.
Additionally, two main characteristics
of the geology in Farringdon, both the
presence of the faults and the variation
of the thickness of the London Clay,
have been simulated in these models.
The fibre reinforced sprayed concrete
(SFRC) was modelled as a linear elastic
-perfectly plastic material considering
the post failure material behaviour
determined by residual flexural tensile
strength of SFRC.
ln all the models, the simulation
of the sequential excavation and
lining installation followed a multistep analysis based on the designed
excavation and support sequences. The
excavation and lining installation of one
advance was performed in two steps; i.e.
the soil was removed in the first step and
the lining was installed in the second
step.
All the major excavation sequences
(top heading, bench and invert) in large
tunnels such as platform and concourse
tunnels were simulated according to the
drawings while in small size tunnels (e.g.
cross passages) a full face method was
considered.
-- --
Al:ol' e (left) :
Fiywre 5a, 30 FE
b01cl! analysis
moDchel
actual division of the face in top heading, bench and invert.

For this purpose, a more simplified 30 model (see Figure
Sa) was constructed where one platform tunnel was excavated
following various excavation sequences, namely:
Al:o10e (right) :
Fiywre 5b, 20 FE
b01cl! analysis
moDchel
Two top headings, bench, invert (TH-B-1)

Two top headings, invert, bench (TH-1-B)
Two top headings, combined bench and invert (TH-B+l)
Full face (i.e. 1m rings)
Be low: Figure
6, C0mparison
ofthe actual
ave nage and
th'i) predicted
All top heading steps were 1m long and all Bench/Invert

excavation steps were 2m long.
The first important conclusion was that the difference
between the TH-B-1, TH-1-B and TH-B+l simulations was
minor, therefore the simpler TH-B+l simulation was used
instead.
A simplified 20 FE model (Figure 5b) was also constructed
in order to assist in the multiple back analyses.
The general steps of the simulation were the following:
in-tl!mne1
defarmations
;1/ 1
Jr
.. I
\
-
Actual
.<!.
BACK ANALYSIS
OPTIMISATION
Both 20 and 30 FEA were used to
perform inverse analysis. The main
scope of the 3D FE back analyses was
to assess the effect of the type of
the simulation of the excavation, ie
between a full face excavation and the
TH-8+1 ko~0.6
TH-8+1
..1.
FFko~0.6
ko~ 1.2
FFko~1.2
..1.
20 FEA
2DFEAko~1.2
ko~0.6
0
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J
--------~/
0
-2
-3
-4
-5
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-6
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Strain Gages
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The World leader in

Vibrating Wire Technology~
[email protected]
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MODELLING
1. Geostatic stress state

2. Softening of subsequently excavated TBM tunnel area by 50
per cent
3. Installation of TBM lining and removal of softened soil
4. Simulation of the stepwise excavation of the Platform
tunnel
I TECHNICAL
References
[1] Dassaul: 5ystemes Simulia 2011. ABAOUSAnalysis User's
Manuai-V51;;'
[2] Duncan, J. M. 8: Wright, S.G. 2005, Soil strength and slope
stability, Jo hn Wiley Et Sons
COMPARISONS
The calibration of the back analysis models assumed the
following three factors:
[3] Gakis, A., flynn, S. Nasekhian, A. 2014. Back analysis of

observed m':a:;urements for optimised SCL tunnel design. North
American Tun1eling : 2014 Proceedings
[4] Gakis, A. ~014. Design of o SCL wraparound tunnel
Predict the in-tunnel displacements as accurately as possible

Predict the surface settlements as accurately as possible
Avoid underestimating the lining stresses
utilising a 3'D geological model for Crossrail Farringdon Station.

BTS Hard inc; r--ice 2014 finalist paper. (please see in www.
britishtunntllhg.org.uk)
For the in-tunnel displacements comparison, the average

values as shown in Table 2 (page 37) were used.
Figure 6 (page 38) shows the results for 2 different values
of the earth coefficient at rest (k 0 ) of the 3D FE design models
(FF k0 =0.6 and FF k0 = 1.2), the back analysis 3D models (THB+l k0 =0.6 and k0 = 1.2) and the 2D FE back analysis models.
lt is shown that the analyses with k0= 1.2 overestimated
the transverse displacements and underestimated the vertical
displacement of the crown. Both the 3D FEA with TH-B+l
excavation and the 2D FEA with k0 =0.6 showed an excellent
match with the in-tunnel displacements. Similar results have
been presented in131141.
For the comparison of the surface settlements, one of the
very few continuous monitoring arrays where no compensation
grouting was carried out was chosen. The accuracy of the
models with k0 =0.6 as compared to the ones with k0 = 1.2 is
shown in Figure 7.
Although the actual performance of the surface was very
stiff, possibly affected by the existing foundations, the 3D
and the 2D FE model with k0 =0.6 produced more satisfying
settlement troughs, which correspond approximately to a
volume loss between 0.4 and 0.5 per cent.
These values correspond only to the enlargement from the
existing TBM tunnels using SCL methods, thus excluding the
volume loss induced by the TBM excavation.
Below: Figure ::';

Comparison of'
the actual a"'!c:
the predicte:t
transverse
settlement
troughs.
Different voi1Uii1le
loss curves ere
also shown
CONCLUSIONS
From the 3D and 2D FEA that were utilised to perform the
back analyses in Crossrail Farringdon station, the
following important conclusions could be drawn :
VL 0.400,n -
.II. 30 FEA ka=0.6
VL 0.50%
Actual Settlements
.11. 20 FEA ka=0.6
20 FEA ka= 1.2
30 FEA ka=1.2
0.000
......
.II. .II.
] 1 +
'll. ~ +
0.005
""E
"~
"iS
0.015
-J;
0.020
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
Simple 20 or/and 30 calibration

models can be utilised in order to derive
similar valuable information that may
increase the performance and reliability
of large scale 3D FE models ~
The authors would like to express
their appreciation for the contribution,
collaboration and guidance from the
Bam Ferrovial Kier contracting joint
venture, Crossrail and Dr Sauer and
Partners.
Ci
-e
The prediction of the surface

settlement is very sensitive to the ko
value.
ln a 30 FE analysis, the division
of the excavation sequence in
Top 1-leading, Bench and lnvert
produces similar results in-tunnel
displacements and lining stress
results if the bench and the invert are
combined into one step.
Both 30 FE analyses simulating
a full face excavation (FF) and a
divided TH/B/1 excavation produce
very similar settlement troughs. For
this purpose, the more simplified FF
simulation can be used.
For the ground conditions in
Farringdon station, a value of k0 =0.6
produced more realistic deformation
results (in-tunnel and surface
settlements).
The volume loss attributed solely to
the SCL enlargement of the Platform
tunnels from the existing TBM
tunnels in Farringdon, varied between
0.4 per cent and 0 .5 per cent.
The 20 FE back analysis, predicted
both in-tunnel and surface
settlements very reliably. This was
expected at some extent as the spans
of the platform tunnels between
junctions were long enough to be
able to approximate plain strain
conditions.
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BROKK
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TC CROATlA
The World Tunnel Congress heads to the
Dalmatian Coast for the first ever visit to South
East Europe region . As of 2013, Croatia is the
newest member of the European Union, giving
this WTC a timely aspect
ROATIA lS is located in the

middle of South-East Europe and
on the July 1st, 2013, Croatia
became the 28th member of the EU.
South-East Europe is the EU region
with the highest expectations and
plans in developing infrastructure in
next two decades in Europe. Therefore
choosing Dubrovnik with its location in
the middle of the South-East Europe
region and in the heart of Europe we
would like to make the sign to all
other member nations where to go
and where to intensifY their activities
in the soon future. So far none of
SEE countries have had opportunity
to organise a World Tunnel Congress
and this happening will strongly and
certainly help further development of
und ergrou nd infrastructure in the future.
Dubrovnik is also a regional centre
for infrastructure works with uniq ue
und erground solutions (un dergrou nd
HPP Ombla, city road tunnel, li ght rail to
airport, new road roundabout) that will
all be in construction in 2015 (')
WTC 2075
Dubrovnik, Croatia
Valamar Lacroma Dubrovnik Hotel
Conference Hall and Business Centre
22-28 May
www.wtc2075.com
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----------1
CUTTERS/
INSIGHT
WHEN THE GROUND

GETS TOUGH
Rhian Owen explores TBM cutter options
with a focus on mixed ground
Rhian Ow'E!n
Rhian has been a regular contributor to
Tunnels anc Tlllnnelling since 2011
HE MOST difficult terrain for TBM tunnelling is mixed

ground. lt's a challenging prospect, which can involve
excavation in boulder fields, sections of rock, sticky day,
often under high water pressure or changing water pressure.
The right cutting tools and cutterhead design is therefore vital
in maintaining a rapid advance rate.
The choice of cutting tool is dependent on the anticipated
geology. However, disc cutters and knife bits are the primary
tools of choice for EPB machines with other add-on tools
supporting the functioning of these tools.
The optimal primary protection for EPB cutterheads in soft
and mixed ground is the replaceable knife bit. "These come
in standard duty and heavy duty, but standard duty is only
recommended for geology that is very easy to excavate," says
Brad Grothen, engineering manager for Robbins. "Although
these tools are replaced relatively quickly and easily once
they are accessed from behind the cutterhead, they require
interventions to inspect and replace;

thus, it is better to choose the highest
quality knife bits in order to minimise
required changes. "
Grothen adds that common knife bits
include eight layers of tungsten carbide
inserts, a proprietary alloy steel shank,
and a complete coating of 64 Rockwell
C (Rc) hard facing. These replaceable
knife bits are welded to a base plate
assembly that is wedge-locked into the
cutterhead.
Mixed-face EPB cutterheads are
designed to accept either disc cutters or
knife bits. "In pure EPB applications, it is
~ Af1ilo#flerican
LUCIA
20l~NOR
....
...
~ ~
101
ll
r)
It")
INSIGHT
CUTTERS
recommended to add shorter secondary

knife bits in the same path with the
primary knife bits so wear doesn 't
rapidly advance to the cutterhead
structure if the primary knife bits wear
out. The secondary knife bit is essentially
a shorter version of the primary knife bit.
"Cutterhead spokes are designed to
alternate between primary and secondary
knife bits. lt has been found that a radial
spacing of these primary cutting tools
at a set distance apart is efficient in the
breaking up of soft ground. When hard
rock or boulders are encountered and
these tools are replaced by disc cutters,
this same spacing allows the discs to
break up the rock and allow the cracked
rock in-between cutters to fall out. "
TOUGH GROUND
Disc cutters were first invented for
breaking rock and have the longest
life of any cutting tool in rock. Over
the years, disc cutters have shown to
be the best choice of cutting tool for
breaking rock into smaller pieces for
easy removal. There are many styles of
discs available and many options for
the configurations of those discs on
the cutterhead.
When large boulders are expected the
cutterhead is typically fitted with disc
cutters. 1-lowever, Robbins states that
when the tunnel also passes through
more traditional EPB materials, it is
important to maintain the cutterhead
face opening ratio.
Disc cutters take up a lot of
cutterhead space compared to EPB picks
and bits. The design of the cutters and
cutterhead take on great importance for
mixed ground tunnels with a probability
of large boulders. Restricting the size of
rock pieces that may pass through the
cutterhead is important to reducing the
risk of blockage of the screw conveyor.
Also, in such situations, minimising wear
is imperative.
46
Aoo ~ce :
Lovatface
ri7=per tooling
US.;!d on Line 9 of
the Beijing Metro
1-ligh performance app ears to be linked to a mixed ground

EPB machines being fitted with a cutterhead designed and
fitted for mixed ground , for example fitted with disc cutters as
well as soft ground tools.
Machines that have to be stopped one or more times in the
tunnel to have the cutting head redressed, from soft ground
tools to full disc cutters, under pressure often lose time for
the retrofit making it impossible to achieve a rapid tunnel
excavation.
"ln 1-lybrid TBMs, the ability to manage soft ground tools
and disc cutters is of primary importance. Many different
cutters and soft ground tools can be used - disc cutters with
carbide inserts, soft ground tooling with increasing amounts of
carbide as ground becomes more challenging. "
Furthermore, increasingly tough , mixed ground conditions
are ushering in a new era of cutting tools. "Certainly in mixed
ground hyperbaric interventions and tool changes can be
a challenge, so optimising tool life and cost is important, "
says Grothen . More robust tool design is desirable. More hard
facing, increased carbide in the tools is desired. Mounting
systems must be in place, which are able to interchange
between the different tool types. We want a design that is
flexible in the tools that it can accommodate.
"The tools themselves can be used in a variety of mounting
systems, but th ese need to work together to mount into a
single housing."
THE HYBRIDTBM
The use of hybrid TBMs is a trend that follows with the
increasing frequency of difficult tunnel conditions in mixed
ground conditions.
Where multiple machine types might have once been used
for different sections of geology, today hybrid machines are
excavating the entire tunnel.
"1-lybrid TBMs are becoming more widely accepted , and
are thus becoming more common ," notes Grothen. "As more
challenging jobs are considered, hybrid TBMs help mitigate
some of that risk.
"They are being seen as a viable alternative compared to
traditional solutions that might involve using multiple TBM
types or combining methods like drill and blast and TBM.
There are lots of ways to approach a problem of course, but
1-lybrid TBMs are being considered a good alternative now more
than ever. "
While there are various types of hybrid TBMs, the EPB/
hard rock machine offers some intriguing possibilities. A cross
between a hard rock single shield TBM and an EPB, these
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- - -INC
General and Heavy

Civil Contractor
> Building
> Heavy Civil
>Tunnel
Fran~ois Groleau, P. Eng.

f rancois.grolea u@e bcinc.com
Donald Proulx, P. Eng.

don ald.proulx@e bcin c.co m
3900 Isabelle Street
Brossard (Qc) j4Y 2R3
T.: 450 444-93 33
F.: 450 444-933 0
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BABENDERERDE
ENGINEERS
In
INSIGHT
cuTTERs
TBMs bore tunnels with sections of

both rock and soft ground, and utilise
interchangeable cutting tools and muck
removal systems to complete the project
tunnel.
ln terms of muck removal, Grothen
says that interchangeable muck removal
is what defines a hybrid TBM. Looking
at a EPB/hard rock machine designed to
excavate in open or closed mode, in hard
rock or soft ground, Grothen explains:
"This type of machine has a screw
Bot h: Workshop
prepCllration of
TB iitf
conveyor to operate in closed mode. Some machines in this

category will also be fitted with a belt conveyor for better open
mode performance in hard rock. ln larger diameter TBMs, both
conveyor types can be installed concurrently, and in smaller
sizes the conveyors usually need to be exchanged.
This conversion process of course requires some amount
of downtime but it can be justified if there are long stretches
of rock that require the machine to be in that mode. Another
feature that can greatly improve performance is use of variable
speed cutter head drives with multi-speed gearboxes that can
provide high torque at slow speeds for soft ground , as well as
high RPM for rock.
"Cutterheads can also be designed to be converted to/from
bidirectional to single direction mucking."
EFFICIENCY
The design of a hybrid TBM must be tooled for the geology
in order to be most effective. Alth ough hybrid machines
provide the possibility to make difficult tunnelling projects
possible, the machine must be geared towards either soft soils
or hard rock.
"A Hybrid TBM is a balancing act between two different
types," says Grothen. "This is particularly true of Rock/EPB
hybrids and Rock/Slurry hybrids as the designs are so distinct
from one another. Depending on geology, the design is then
optimised to work most efficiently through the whole project.
lf most of the project will be in rock, for example, we will skew
cutterhead design towards rock geology so it can get through
short sections of soft ground while being highly efficient in
rock.
"lt's all a compromise, skewed for the best overall effect.
Some examples of modifications for rock include abrasion48 I Tunnels I May 2015
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CUTTERS/I ~ ~ ~
--------------
resistant wear plating installed in high-wear areas of the

cutterhead, protective structures for cutters in blocky ground,
and the use of disc cutters themselves."
Much of the efficiency in 1-lybrid TBMs, therefore, lies in the
accuracy of the ground prediction.
Groth en adds: "1-lowever, lf the geology is 50 percent
rock and 50 percent soft ground, this will then depend on
the lengths of each section. The machine will be a true
compromise-and if there are very short sections of rock and
soft ground switching back and forth, then the machine must
be optimised towards swift conversion of muck system and
cutting tools."
MEXICO'S BIG PROJECT

Work on Mexico's Emisor Oriente sewerage project started
in April 2009 after decades in planning and design. The
desperately needed infrastructure is designed to replace,
underground, an open canal that conveys waste and
stormwater from Mexico City to a discharge on the Tula River
to the east of the city.
For many years engineers believed the ground would be
too difficult to excavate - the soil is made up of watery clays
running up to 80m deep with the water table just 2 to 3m
below the surface. The ground also contains boulders up to
600mm in diameter.
Custom designed EPBs were designed for the difficult mixed
ground conditions they would be facing on the job site. The
machines were engineered with mixed ground, back-loading
cutterheads, with carbide cutter bits to deal with variable
ground conditions, and ribbon-type screw conveyors to remove
large boulders.
"The mixed ground heads are performing well, although
the geology has changed over time and has become more
challenging. The Mixed ground design has been optimized for
Below: Close~
view of disc
cutters
installed on
the cutterhea::l
of one of the
Emisor Orient'
machines, with
carbide bits
along the edg~s
of cutterheacf
spokes
difficult geology, but the ground is more

difficult than we initially thought," says
Groth en.
Alcala adds: "We have found during
tunnelling that the ground conditions
can change dramatically in as little as
50m. For this reason, we have backloading cutterheads in order to change
cutting tools safely and effectively. We
are currently doing geological surveys at
Lots 3 and 4, which have encountered
some unexpected very hard rock
conditions including abrasive basalt and
boulders. We are constantly adjusting
based on which points we expect the
basalt to be encountered at during the
tunnel drives so we can find the best
way to operate the TBMs.
"Efficiency at interchanging cutters
has improved dramatically throughout
the project. Now that we are past the
learning curve, crews can change 48
, cutters in 2 to 3 days. At some points
the machines are in full-face basalt so
cutters can be changed at atmospheric
pressure. Lot 4 did require some
hyperbaric interventions using divers due
to ground water. "
Furthermore, cutting tools wear especially in mixed ground conditions
- and besides disc cutters and/or knife
bits, additional tools are needed to
encourage muck flow, protect cutterhead
structures, and monitor for excessive
I r,
I N s I G H-T- / ~;T E R s
--- -
wear.
On the TEO project hydraulic wear
detectors have been installed at various
locaions and levels, while there is wear
detection covering the cutterhead
structure throughout the entire face in
the form of a wear detection pipe.
Grothen says: "The installation of
wear detectors at varying heights on
the face of the cutterhead can give
warning of excessive wear or of the need
to replace cutting tools before damage
occurrs to the cutterhead structure.
Wear detectors use hydraulic pressure
that is released when a certain amount
of wear occurs and the hydraulic line is
sheared, sending a signal to the machine
operator.
"Another very important wear
detector type is the wear tube. This
tube is routed along the surface of the
cutterhead structure from the center to
the outermost structure, and is protected
by the cutterhead wear plate on both
sides."
Robbins states that the company
invests more on R8:D for cutters than
any other company in the industry.
However, Aaron Shananhan says that
improving the overall project through
52
-----
Above (left) :
The TBM on the
Emisor Oriente
prc;je1;t was
ins'.:a!led with
car:hide bits
rat"'ler than disc
cutters
Above (right) :
Abrasionres~stant wear
platiRg in
the.form of
str;ations after
breakthrough
at t.he San
Francisco
Celiltml Subway
greater wear prediction capabilities could benefit from more

research.
"There will always be the potential for incremental
improvements in tool performance through the material,
processing, and design of tools but 1 believe that there is
greater potential for improving the overall project through
greater wear prediction capabilities. Disc cutter wear prediction
models are fairly well developed at this point. Soft ground
tool wear models take only a few inputs and generate a basic
estimate of cutting tool wear. l'm not aware of any predictive
model that can accurately predict cutting tool performance in a
true mixed face condition."
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Generally, while some designs for high-pressure cutters used
in conditions of plus three bar exist in the industry, their
capability is limited in certain conditions. For example, while
the standard seal is rated for about three bar of pressure
differential between the atmosphere and the bearing cavity,
which is reached at 30m below the water table, many tunnels
are far deeper.
Various methods have been tried over the years to try to
compensate the internal pressure in cutters to match the
exterior pressure, in order to overcome the pressure differential
problems. "Our approach for handling high pressure situations
is to equalise the pressure across the cutter seals so there is no
great pressure differential acting against the seals."
"We accomplish this through the use of a patented pressurecompensating device that is compatible with all standard
cutter designs. Previous applications of pressure compensation
devices in EPB applications have generally not fared well
because they utilised small surface area devices that were
highly prone to plugging.
"The device has a much greater surface area, requiring very
little movement to achieve complete pressure compensation
across the seals, negating the need for special high pressure
seals" r,
innovation in
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TRIBUTE
BTS
A TRlBUTE TO MYlES
Myles O'Reilly is retiring as chairman of the Tunnels ond Tunnelling Editorial Advisory
Board (EAB). Holding a seat from the Board's first me~ting, Myles was appointed
chairman in 1981. In honour of decades of service to the industry, he was awarded the
James Clark Medal in 1998. His longstanding colleagLe and fellow EAB member
Barry New has written a tribute
YLES'S GREAT strength has always been as an
intuitive engineer with considerable breadth of vision.
ln 1972 he ntted perfectly into the role as Division
l-lead of the new Tunnels Division at TRRL. Such a position
required his drive and leadership skills but paramount was his
vision to anticipate and promote the research needs of the
industry.
l-lis task as Division l-l ead was to recruit and lead his TRRL
team but equally importantly he was to select and sponsor
tunnelli ng research in our higher educational establishments
and where appropriate Consultancies. l-lis intuitive ability to
promote good proposals and to weed out others was key in
this role: Such talents have also been vital as Chairman of the
Editorial Board.
ln the early 70's the Channel tunnel project was in its
infancy and his early work was on pilot scale research into
improving efficiency in excavatin g chalk. This led to the
full scale tun nelling trials at Chinnor which provided a wide
spectrum of benents including, improvements in rock cuttin g,
the instrumentation of tunnelling machines, the monitorin g
of ground movements and improvements in site investigation
techniques.
lt also provided a rapid 'hands on' tunnelling education
and very practical training for his staff. 1 had just transferred
to TRRL from the National Physical Laboratory and working at
the Chinnor trials gave me a rapid introduction to tunnelling. 1
never did get the chalk dust out of my car.
Myles has the ability to pick winners and his early support
for Peter Attewell at Durham University and research within
TRRL led to the development of a broad empirical and
theoretical basis for the prediction of ground movements
around tunn els.
l-lis paper, reprinted here, is an example of his foresight in
achieving a range of carefully programmed and supervised neld
measurements on which the predictive model was based and
validated.
ln some ways not much has changed in respect of the
methodology in predicting ground movements around tunnels
since the 1982 paper.
That paper introduced the radial flow assumption and
the variable trough width parameter formulation which
facilitated the application of the Martos/Schmidt/Peck
Gaussian assu mption to a wide variety of ground conditions
and importa ntly now yielded subsurface movements. The
two dimensional model published in the paper also provided
ground slope, curvature and strain which are critical in making
structural damage assessments. This approach was soon
developed into a three dimensional model and relatively minor
rennements have been given since.
The paper remains widely cited and, some 33 years after its
publication, is still applied throughout the world .
lt is perhaps a sad reflection on the failures of the
Barry New
Barry is an a~sociate of the Geotechnical
Consulting <:.-oup
Government to properly support

tunnelling research that this remains
the case: The continuity provided by
Government research is badly missed and
a costly loss to UK Ltd.
What has changed dramatically since
1982 is the development of pressurised
face TBM's which have reduced ground
movements by almost an order of
magnitude. Myles's early foresight
even extended to supporting the
developments in slurry shield technology,
nrstly at the New Cross trials, and
later in 1976 at the nrst commercial
application of the Bentonite shield TBM
for the Acton Grange Outfall Sewer in
Warrington .
l-lis ability in picking winners
extended to his support for Andrew
Schofleld in the early days of the
Cambridge Centrifuge.
The research he chose to sponsor
at that time supported several Ph.D.
students who today have become
world leaders in tunnelling and wider
geotechnical research.
Later in his tenure he extended
support to soft ground SCL works and
the l-leathrow Express Trial Tunnel again
provided an excellent research platform
for his staff who at that time included
Keith Bowers who has since gone on to
become l-l ead of Tunnel Engineering at
London Underground .
Myles's personal talents do not always
extend to what he describes as 'suffering
1 fools gladly' and, although rare, his
forthright approach to management in
difficult situations is well known.
Above all his ability to lead and
inspire loyalty in his staff will endure
and his oversight will be sorely missed by
the British Tunnelling Society's Editorial
Advisory Board r,
~I
~ ECHNICAL
/SETTLEMENT
SETTLEMENTS ABOVE
TUNNEL:S lN THE
UNlTED KlNGDOM THElR MAGNlTUDE
AND PREDlCTlON
This paper was first published in 1982 by Myles O'Reilly and Barry New with
conference proceedings printed by the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Following
Myles's retirement from the Advisory Board of Tunnels and Tunnelling this month, it is
reprinted here in appreciation of (] is many years of support
EITLEMENTS CAN be a problem with soft ground

tunnelling in urban areas where buildings, Jcrth modern
and ancient, can be put at risk, services, toJ, can be
endangered and at times it has been deemed neefs;ary to
divert services before tunnelling is begun. These ~nvironme ntal
considerations have led to a considerable researcr effort being
devoted to the study of settlements caused by turnrelling
through soft ground; much of the research work hcs been
undertaken either directly by or under contract fGrr the
Transport and Road Research Laboratory. Measurc>ments
of settlement and ground movement made on tUJ1nelling
projects located , in the main, in built-up areas aR Feviewed.
The ground conditions studied included stiff-iiss-Jr~d clays,
glacial deposits and recently deposited silty clays, a; well as
cohesion less soils of low density, weak rocks and rmde ground.
Many of the tunnels were driven in free air by us~ of shields,
but compressed air was used in the weaker soils to maintain
stability; the bentonite shield and chemical treatment of the
ground were also used in loose sands. The data from these case
studies are used to provide simple analytical toob hat enable
better prediction of the magnitude of settlements end ground
movements caused by tunnelling through soft grJlll1d to be
made.
One ofthe three basic requirements for the de;i~n of a
satisfactory tunnel lrJ 1>1 is that its construction should cause
as little damage as possible to overlying or adjacen~ existing
structures and services. With soft-ground tunnellng settlement
is often a problem in built-up areas, where buildirn ~s, old and
new, important or otherwise, can be put at
risk. Services, too, such as gas and water
mains and sewers can be endangered
and it has occasionally been deemed
prudent to carry out considerable service

diversion and relocation works as a
prelude to tunnelling.
To minimise overall project costs
and the risk of damage or accident
as a result of tunnel construction the
engineer who designs the tunnel needs
to be able to make reliable predictions
of the extent and amount of settlement
that are likely to arise from tunnelling
in various conditions. Given reliable
forecasts of ground deformations
he would be in a position to choose
between a number of options, that,
depending on the particular location,
might include:
1. Relocation of the tunnel well clear of
sensitive structures
2. A longer tunnel in better ground
3. Chemical stabilisation or freezing
of weak ground on the more direct
route
4. Underpinning of existing buildings
and relocation of water and gas
mains
Such considerations and a growing
emphasis on environmental
problems led to a
considerable research
effort being devoted
Myles O'Reilly
Barry New
Myles, retired, is formerly of the

Transport Et Road Research Laboratory
Barry is an associate of the Geotechnical

Consulting Group
-------
during the 1970s, both in the United

Kingdom ad abroad, to the study of the
settlements and ground deformations
caused by driving tunnels in soft ground .
Much of this research in the United
Kingdom was undertaken either directly
by, or under contract for, the Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, and the
results obtained on some individual
schemes and groups of schemes have
a!ready been reported IJ-I31. At the same
time a programme of centrifuge and
static model tests was being carried
out at Cambridge University to obtain
a better understanding of the response
of the ground to tunnelling 114- 171. ln
this paper summarised data from all the
tunnel sites studied have been assembled
and analysed so that the designers
and constructor of tunnels are better
equipped to make predictions of the
settlements and ground deformations
that result from tunnelling.
PATTERN OF GROUND
MOVEMENT
Ground movements above tunnels
may conveniently be considered
under two headings. The fnst, surface
settlement, may adequately be
described by assigning a particular
geometrical form to the settlement
profile and using case history data
to predict its magnitude. Secondly,
the horizonta l component of surface
ground movement and generalised
subsurface ground displacements
are less easily dealt with, as further
assumptions are required to define the
nature of the deformations. The lack of
reliable case history data - as exist for
surface settlements - and the different
behaviour of cohesive and cohesionless
soils make prediction of these
movements somewhat speculative.
As surface horizontal and subsurface
ground movement will, however, often
be of considerable interest, an attempt
is made to determine the form of
these displacements, particularly in the
vicinity of the ground surface.
SE ~~E~/ TECHNICAL ~
Transverse distance from centreline
.f3T
3i
V, =J2TT i Smax
Maximum curvature "hogging'

dy2
[1]
S = Smax
exp -
Where S is the surface settlement

at a transverse distance y from the
tunnel centre line Smax is the maximum
settlement (at y = 0) and i is the
"0
0.4
c.
0
a.
~
0.6
*Maximum horizontal strain (tensile)

= .!!!i(y,z) = 0.446 Smax
dy
z
"'
;:;
0.8
Point of infex.on (y=i, S = 0.606 Smaxl

Maximum sJ oJ=e = dS = 0.606 Smax
dy
-i-
*Maximum lioonzontal displacement= H[y,z) = 0.606i_Smax (y,z)
z
Maximum curvature 'sagging'= d 2 S = Smax
dv2r
*Maximum horizontal strain (compressive) =
dH[y, z) = Smax (y,z)
_d_y_ _ - - - z -
Tunnel axis leveJz
Not applicable to granular soils
Above: Figure 1,
Settlement semiprofile with error
function form
standard de\iall:ion of the curve. The value of i provides a

means of de'lring the width of the trough and corresponds
to the value of y at the point of inflexion of the curve; for
practical purpcses the width of the trough can be taken as 6i.
This formul3tion was put forward by Martos IIBI and
was based 01 ~tatistic al evaluation of field observations of
settlements ab:JVe tabular mine openings. Other authors,
notably Schmililt 1191 and Peck 11[, have shown that this approach
adequately noclels the shape of the settlement trough caused
by tunnelling in soft ground. On site it is usually more
convenient b 11easure settlement, although it is the angular
distortions tina ~ result from differential settlement that are of
greatest inte-e~.t with regard to potential damage to overlying
structures ard installations.
Equations f-:>r the ground slope and curvature may be readily
derived by dfff~rentiation of equation one, and the settlement
volume, Vs, pe- unit advance is obtained by integration:
.::0
[2]
Vs =
-""
y2
co
J S dy = f
Smax exp-
2;2c1y
-""
yb i Smax"' 2.5 i Smax
and substitl!lting Smax in equation one gives

y2
Vs
S = ,'fir; exp-
Surface settlement
y2
2;2
.....0
"
[3]
Considering only vertical ground
displacement at the surface, it is now
well established an accepted that the
shape of the settlement trough above a
tunnel may be reasonably represented
by an error function curve of the form:
0.2
S = Smax exp (y 2/2i 2)
= d 2S = 0.446 Smax
><
E1
Vl
Settlement volume (per unit advance)
then the
[4]
2;2
sl~e
dS -~
dy - ,fiii ;3 exp -
y2
2 ;2
and the nrtature
[s]
2
"dy~
~ -_ ~
,fiii ;3
[L -1 ]exp - ?-2_,
;2
y2
Given vall!le~ for Vs and i, these equations may be easily

evaluated on a pocket calculator to give the settlement, slope
and curvatur-= at any point on the settlement profile. Figure
1 illustrates the form and principal features of this settlement
trough.
May 2015
I Tunnels I 57
In
TEC H NICA L
SE TT LEMENT
Horizontal and subsurface

displacements
The above description of the shape of
the surface settlement trough gives
no indication of horizontal ground
movement or of the changing width
of the subsurface settlement profile as
the soil particles migrate toward the
area of ground loss in the vicinity of
the tunnel. As differing mechanisms
are likely to apply, the problem is best
considered separately for cohesive or
clay soils and for cohesionless sands
and gravels.
''~\
..
1\\\\\~\
II\
.. ,,
[6]
i z = Kz
where i is the standard deviation

(trough width parameter) at height z
above tunnel axis and K is an empirical
constant of proportionality. It also
fo ll ows that
[7 ]
H(y.z)
=f
S(y.z)
where 1-l(y,z) and S(y,z) are,

respectively, the horizontal and vertical
components of soil displacement at
a transverse distance y and a vertical
58 I Tunnels I May 20 15
\'\\~
., ,, ' '
+++t~fff'l''
\~\t~++ttfffflf '
\t
\~+++t~f,,,,,.,.
,\~ ,~t+++l'""'''
..,,, -
.,,, '''\~\
tl;"~'''
... \ ~ "'\'\\+++fl;"-"'' . ..
,, ~ ,,,
11'''
......
,,,
.. ,,,,
COHESIVE SOILS
In addition to the assumption that the
settlement trough takes the fo rm of
an error function curve, the following
analysis assumes that all particulate
movements in the soil occur along
radial paths toward the tunnel axis and
that conditions of plane strain consta nt
volume deformation apply.
Support from field measurements
for the radial flow postulate is limited
by lack of below ground deformation
measurements, but the data that do
exist do not conflict with such an
assumption . The most convincing
evidence in support is provided by the
results of the centrifuge tests on model
tunnels in soft clay reported by Mair '201
(see Figure 2). The information available
tends to suggest that the flow is directed
towards a 'sink', which is located at a
point somewhat below axis level of the
tu nnel perhaps close to invert level. Such
variation in location of the sink is not,
however, of significance in consideration
of deformations towards the surface well
away from the tunnel.
The adoption of radial flow
assumption means that the width of
the zone of deformed ground decreases
linearly with depth below the ground
surface. This resu lts in the magnitude
of the ground movements increasing
linearly with depth below the surface to
conform with the plane strain constant
volume postul ate:
\~~++~~fff11J',,
~\+t+t+~ 1 "''"''"
,,~,,
,~.-
"'"'
~ .
...
...
... .. .. ...
...
'
'
...
...
............ , , , , I I //
'
' ' ' ' \1111
,,,,,
II
.. ,,
/I//
1 1 '''
I i i"
' ' \\
,, ,,,~~jj l l'' '
:~PJbU::.
\
'
,,
'
......
Above (top) :
Fig llre 2 , Soil
dis::Jlace m ents
arcrum. d model
t u nnel in clay.
Aftar Ma ir c2 o1
Above (bottom) :
Fig llre 3, Soil
dis?la ce ment s
arcru111d m odel
tunnel in sand.
( Le:ft . Aft e r Potts
c221 .:m d Right:
Afta r Co rdi ng et
al c:31}
I ;I
.,,\~
. - ' ' \I
~~~'/._ II ' ,
11/;1;/ (
' '-\ ~ \ \ ! II /I
'' ''~li/'J''''
j il l ' ' ''
, , ,,,
--)~
~ ~ ~\ ~
11
11
~ tl/, ,/
distance z from the tunnel axis. Glossop 's '21 1 stochastic

analysis of subsurface movements around tunnels gives a resu lt
identical to equ ation seven, as does Martos ' 181 for horizontal
surface displacements above tubular openings.
From equations one, three, six and seven, the generalised
displacements are given by
[8]
y2
S(y.z)
= S(max,y;z) expV5
2;z 2
y2
/2it K.z
ex p- 2(Kzf
and
[9]
H(y.z)=
V5 y
zr S(maxJ.z) exp - L2;z 2

y2
= j2it K.z2 exp- 2(Kz)2
and the vertica l and horizontal grou nd strains (Ev and EH)
are:
- -------
[10]
Ev =
dS(y .z) _ _
dz
v_s_
- ..fbi Kz2 exp
___:2_
2(Kz)2
[L -1]
dH(y ,z)
EH
Vs
= ----ay = ..fbi Kz2
y2
exp -
2(Kzf
1-
y2
TE
cHNIcA L
construction of Strand Station has also

been undertaken 1271 and, quite recently,
measurements have been made over a
tunnel driven through Oxford Clay.
(Kz)2
and
[ 11]
----- s E T T L E M E N T
(Kz)2
(note that (cv = -cH, which satisfies the conditions of plane

strain constant volume deformation). These equations are
not applicable in the region close to the tunnel -say, within
about a diameter of the periphery- because of the simplifYing
assumptions in their derivation.
GRANULAR SOILS
The analysis given above for cohesive soils is unlikely to be
applicable to granular soils as the assumption that particle
displacements away from the tunnel are directed toward the
tunnel axis is not supported by laboratory studies. further, the
assumption of deformation at constant volume is untenable
as some dilation or compaction of granular soils is almost
inevitable during deformation. Again, data from the field are
limited and inconclusive. Independent model studies reported
by Potts 1221 and Cording et al 1231 indicate a rapid narrowing
with large inward displacements of the settlement trough near
the ground surface with the sand soils funneling down into the
void created by the excavation (see figure 3). This settlement
mode was discussed by Atkinson and coworkers '241 in terms of
a dilating wedge over the tunnel crown , which develops until
collapse occurs on surfaces that propagate vertically upwards
from the tunnel haunches.
This type of ground movement has been noted in the field
and, when associated with vertical ground strains in excess of
0.5 per cent, leads to a deep and narrow settlement trough
with high horizontal surface strains that may not always be
accurately approximated by an error function curve '251.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Both the strength of the ground and the method of tunnel
construction can affect the distribution and amount of
settlement that result from the driving of a tunnel. And,
although the grosser effects of soil resistance to deformation at
the tunnel collapse condition can be dealt with quantitatively,
the construction method adopted and in particular, the rate of
advance of the tunnel opening and the application of support
can clearly influence the amount of settlement.
The approach adopted in the field investigations was to
identifY and monitor a number of tunnel construction projects
that were located in a range of soft ground formations
representative of conditions in the more populous built-up
areas of the United Kingdom . Such a collection of case history
data would provide, in the first instance, the quantitative
information from which estimates might be made on the basis
of experience of the likely extent and amount of settlement
that result from new tunnelling in similar ground conditions. lt
would subsequently provide the basic fi eld data on which more
rational -less empirical- approaches could be tried and tested.
Cohesive glacial deposits

Settlement studies have been made
at Tyneside on sewer tunnels driven
in free air at Hebburn and Howden
1251 and at Eldon Square Newcastle on
a tunnel that is being driven for the
metro.
Recent silty clay deposits

Of considerably more concern are the
settlements caused when tunnelling,
usually in compressed air, through recent
silty clay deposits, which occur widely
in coastal areas; their undrained shear
strengths are typically in the 10-50kN/
m2 range. Studies in such deposits were
first made at Grangemouth, where
consid erable further settlement was
recorded subsequent to the release of
compressed air '291. further studies have
been carried out at Willington Quay 19 1,
at Belfast IIDI, on the M5 near Bristol
1121 and at Grimsby on tunnels driven in
compressed air; a small-diameter tunnel
driven in free air at Stockton-on-Tees IBI
has also been studied.
Cohesion1ess soils
Traditionally, either compressed air or
chemical treatment had been used where
required in these conditions to stabilise
the tunnel face and control ground
movements 1301.
The bentonite tunnelling process
13 ll has recently been developed as an
alternative to these and was shown
to be effective in controlling ground
movements at trials at New Cross 141. The
construction of three lengths of sewer
tunnel at Warrington in loose granular
soils enabled ground settlements to
be monitored where the above three
methods have been used as well as on
sections of tunnel driven in free air '"I;
a hand-excava ted tunnel shield driven
below the water-table in sand has been
monitored at Irvine 1321.
Weak rock formations
Stiff fissured clays
Settlements have been measured over

sections of tunnel driven in chalk at
Chinn or 161, in Keuper Marl at Cardiff and
in sandstone at Warrington 111 1.
The construction of the Victoria Line of the London

Underground provided a great deal of data on vertical
settlement over tunnels in London Clay during the late
1960s '261. further, more detailed studies were carried out at
Green Park 131 and Regents Park 151 during the construction
of the Jubilee Line, on an access tunnel near Kings Cross
Station 1131 and on a sewer at Sutton. A comprehensive study
of the settlements caused to Grand Buildings during the
Measurements have been made in

Newcastle on a sewer tunnel driven
across a valley innlled with municipal
rubbish; a section of tunnel overlain by
nil has also been monitored at
Sutton.
www. tu.nnelsonline. info
Loose filled or made ground
r,
-- -- -------
In
TECHNICAL/
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Data from the sites where the
settlement pronle normal to the
direction of tunnelling was established
are summarised in Tables One
and Two, the former dealing with
predominantly cohesive soils and the
latter with granular soils; information
on the excavation method and ground
conditions is also included. lt was
found that the majority of settlement
60
SETTLEMENT
pronles could, as expected, be represented by an error

function curve and values of the trough width parameter, i,
and ground loss, Vs, are given for each settlement pronle. The
simple analysis that follows is designed to provide empirical
predictions of i and Vs that together uniquely denne the
settlement pronle.
As had been found previously '' 9' ' 33 ', no well-denned
relations were apparent between ground losses and stability
ratio IJl. This also proved to be the case when attempts
were made to relate ground losses to load factor 117 1, which,
conceptually, has the ability to make allowance for differing
-v;vexc, as
%
2.42
----------1
SE T T L EM E NT/
TECHNICAL
Soil properties, Cu,
Excavation method and s.oi<! type
kN/m 2
3.9
73
Hand excavated and lined with <CQrlcrete segments within shield; laminated clay overlain
by stony clay
1.4
12.6
270
Hand excavated and lined with <ea;;t iron segments; stiff fissured overconsolidated London
Clay
1.4
1.3
15.2
10.3
230
230
Hand excavated and lined with co-1crete segments within shield; London Clay
15.8
3.8
12 and 100
Hand excavated in shield lined ~tr concrete segments; compressed air applied about 20 days
after excavation released about 7C days after excavation; lower 600/o of face stiff stone clay,
remainder soft marine silty clay CGr msby Marine Warp) overlain with 2.5m of stiff clay
1.09
5.73
0.481
7.1
2.8
12
Hand-excavated in Grimsby MairlE warp overlain with about 1 m of stiff clay; compressed air
18.2
4.3
12
As above; settlement still takin pace
Hand-excavated and lined in sh el:l with concrete segments; compressed air; soft saturated alluvial silt and silty clay [osleech)
1.9
2.7
10
2.4
10
2.42
3.9
73
Partial face machine excavated n ;;hield with compressed air; glacial till; firm/stiff silty
clay with some sand and gravel leses
3.86
10
180
Hand-excavated; stiff fissured LJnjon Clay
0.75
90
Hand-excavated; firm to stiff weanhered London Clay
2.98
90
Full-face machine (mini-tunnel) e>cavated; firm to stiff weathered London Clay
30.4
3.47
50 (vane)
Hand-excavated and lined (3-se::Jrrent concrete) within shield (mini-tunnel); soft to very
soft silty clay with sand lenses
41.5
3.68
50 (vane)
2.8
18
Hand-excavated within shield INitr compressed air; soft to very soft alluvium overlain
with fill for motorway embankment
0.6
7.8
230
Hand-excavated (no shield); cas~ i"lln lining; London Clay
0.44
200-400
Full-face machine in shield; stiff, ~avily overconsolidated fissured clay (Oxford Clay)
ground support conditions at and behind the tunnel face
11611 201
[35[
Difficulties of determining the appropriate value of the

undra ined shear strength of the ground mass, particularly in
stiff fissured clays IJGI, and uncertainties in the operative P/D
ratio (P is the distance from tunnel face to lining and D is
excavated diameter of tunnel) values in the field were two
reasons for this.
ln additio n, ground losses are related to the rate of tunnel
advance, so in many cases equilibrium will not have been
reached by the time that lining is completed.
SETTLEMENT TROUGH WIDTH

The transverse distance from the tunnel
centre line to the point of inflexion (y
= i) is used to describe the width of
the settlement trough and has been
considered to be related both to the
depth from ground surface to axis, Z,
and to a lesser extent the diameter of
the tunnel. Multiple linear regression
ana lyses performed on the field data
presented here, however, revea led no
May 20 15 1 Tunnels I 61
r,
~ TECHNICAL/
SETTLEMENT
significant correlation between the

trough width parameter, i, and tunnel
diameter, although the expected strong
correlation of i with tunnel depth,
Z, was found. This was true for both
cohesive and granular data groupings.
This finding is to some extent
explained by Glossop, who carried
out an analysis based on stochastic/
numerical modelling techniques 1211.
The analysis showed that at distances
of more than about one tunnel
diameter from the periphery of the
tunnel the shape of the settlement
trough is not significantly dependent
on the tunnel diameter and the loss of
ground may be considered to occur at
a point 'sink' located at the tunnel axis.
The two-variable regression analyses
carried out on the data in Table One and
Two gave the relationships:
[12]
i = 0.43Z + 1.1 (,.2 = 0.96)

for cohesive soils
and
[13]
i=0.28Z-O.l (r=0.78)
for granular soils
where i and Z are in metres.

Figure 4 shows the trough width
parameter plotted against tunnel axis
depth for both ground types. The linear relationship for

cohesive soils is well defined.
The fewer data for granular soils are more scattered and
reflect the often unpredictable consequences of tunnelling in
such ground. The data do not suggest that any relationship
between i and Z, other than linear, would be more appropriate
for either ground conditions.
The linear regression lines pass close to the origin and may
for most practical purposes be simplified to the form
[14]
i=KZ
where K = 0.5 for cohesive or 0.25 for granular soils. Further

review of field data suggests that for clays K varies between
0.4 (stiff clays) and 0.7 (soft, silty clay). For granular materials
above the water-table K ranges between 0.2 and 0.3.
VOLUMEOFLOSTGROUND
As has already been discussed, both ground conditions and
construction method determine the ground losses that result
from tunnelling. To normalise the volume of lost ground with
respect to tunnel size the volume of the settlement trough
at the surface, Vs, is expressed as a percentage of the tunnel
volume excavated, Vexc.
Examination of Tables One and Two shows that the volume
of lost ground is well related to ground conditions. ln the
stiff fissured London Clay ground losses for the 4m-diameter
underground railway tunnels fall in the 1-2 per cent range.
Ground losses can be somewhat larger on the smaller tunnels,
where the overcut annulus around the shield represents a
larger proportion of the excavated cross-section; on the other
hand, losses may well double over a station complex with large
~-
multiple openings 1>71. Ground losses were 0.4 per cent over a
2.8m-diameter sewer tunnel in Oxford Clay.
Although there are only two examples, the volume of lost
ground for tunnels driven in free air in cohesive glacial deposits
appears to be marginally higher, up to 2.5 per cent, than is
found in London Clay. The application of compressed air has
reduced total ground losses to 1.25 per cent, of which 1 per
cent had occurred by the time the compressed air was released.
Settlement occurs at tunnels driven through soft recent
silty clay deposits in two distinct parts: (1) an initial portion
that, as for tunnels driven in free air, commences as the tunnel
approaches the measurement point and, finally, stabilises
sometime after the tunnel has gone past and (2) a second
phase that commences with the release of air pressure and
www.tunnelsonline.info
- - - ------ J
SETTLEMENT/
TECHNICA~
continues often for considerable periods

thereafter. The amount and extent of
the settlement during the second phase
may well exceed that in the initial phase
and has on occasion caused considerable
damage to overlying buildings, e.g. at
Willington Quay the volume of ground
lost was 2.6 per cent and 10.5 per cent
of the tunnel volume in the initial and
second phase, respectively. Ground losses
of 32-42 per cent were recorded during
the driving of the small-diameter tunnel
at Stockton-on-Tees in such soils.
ln the cohesionless soils at
[n
TECHNICAL
sETTLEMENT
Warrington ground loss was about 7

per cent in the tunnel driven below the
water table in loose sand with Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) values of 2-8,
and in a tunnel driven nearby in loose
gravels, following groundwater lowering,
losses were 4.5 per cent. Where the
bentonite tunnelling process was used
ground losses were usually less than
2 per cent. On the sections of tunnel
where chemical treatment was used,
ground losses did not, in general, exceed :
0.5 per cent, although quite damaging
ground movements were caused when
the chemicals were being injected from
the ground surface.
Ground losses above a tunnel driven
through municipal rubbish were 16
per cent, and at Sutton the volume of
the settlement trough was more than
doubled where the in-situ London Clay
was overlain by backfilled ground. ln
weak sandstone Ill] and in chalk IGJ the
volume of lost ground was similar to
that found on chemically treated sands,
and no movements were detected at the
ground surface over a tunnel driven at
depth in Keuper Marl in Cardiff.
PREDICTION OF GROUND
DISPLACEMENTS
Predictions of ground displacements
may be made by substituting the
appropriate values of i and Vs by use of
the information discussed earlier into
the appropriate equations given in the
section 'Pattern of ground movement'.
The value of i may be taken from
equation 14 or, where possible, related
more specifically to ground conditions
on site. The estimate of settlement
trough volume may be based on values
given in the section 'Volume of lost
ground' and should, where possible,
include an engineering appraisa l
that takes account of the proposed
tunnelling methods and site conditions
and peculiarities.
The data obtained on cohesive soils
can be summarised as shown in Table 3;
the values of the trough width parameter
constant, K, for the recent silty clay soils
allows for a considerable amount of
long-term settlement, but some further
movement may still take place. The
results for granular soils are fewer and
more variable and, as yet, there are no
marked trends.
Given the uncertainty involved,
calcu lations for design purposes should
check the sensitivity of the situation
to the likely range of conditions to be
encountered. Estimates of the 'best'
and 'worst' cases should be made to
bracket the extent and depth of ground
deformation - this provides a useful
116
14
1:2
0:.:1
0'
'X'
"'
-~
.':
13
""
<:::
.s"'
"'u
'0
"'
B
.. ,. ~
," .
.=
2 I
,"
,"
"
""
""
"
""
""
""
"
,"
""
"
"
i = 0.43Z + 1.1
""
. ,"~
<;
;;;
"""
"
""
"
""
,"
"
""
," "."
""
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
Depth of tunnel axis below ground surface, Z [m]
2.3
~
~2 .2
"'
0
:g"'
....
c:
c;
o._1A
i=0.28Z-1.12
.8
"'u
~
~
"'~
"';;;
.=~
..
.
;;-" " "
1.3
"
1.)
"
""
_..-"
""
"
""
""
""
""
""
"
"
""
.-" "~
""
~ -- .
0.3
0.2
10
Depth of tunnel axis below ground surface, Z [m]
Abcve: Figure
4, variation of
tro11grh width
parnmeter, i, with
t unnel depth.
To,x Cohesive
soils; Bottom:
Granular soils
starting point in any assessment. lt is important to realise

that this predictive model can only give a general indication
of the form and magnitude of the prospective settlement. ln
practice, unexpected ground conditions on site or difficulties
of construction or poor tunnelling technique or a combination
of all three could lead to significantly different ground
displacements. The values suggested fori and Vs are derived
from data limited as follows:
A. Tunnels with a cover of at least one diameter
B. Tunnel diameters 1-5m approximately
S E TTL E M E N T
T E C H N I CA L
References
1) Peck, R. B. Deep excavations and tunnelling in soft ground.
(Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Soil Mechan ics
and Foundation Eng ineering, Mexico 1969) 225-90
2) Ward , W. H. and Pender M. J., Tunnelling in soft ground.
(Proceedings of 10th Internationa l Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm 1981) 19-52
3) Attewell, P. B. and Farmer I. W., Ground Deformations from
shield tunnelling in London Clay. (Can. Geotech. J. 11 , '74) 380-95
4) Boden, J. B. and McCaul, C., Measurement of ground
movements during a bentonite tunnelling experiment. (Transport
Road Research Laboratory Report 653, 1974) 8
5) Barratt, D. A. and Tyler, R. G., Measurements of ground
movements and lining behaviour on the London Underground at
Regents Park (TRR L Report 684, 1975) 53
6) McCaul, C., Morgan, J. M., and Boden , J. B., Measurement of
ground movement due to excavation of a shallow tunnel in Lower
Chalk. (Transport Road Research Laboratory supp. Report 199, '76)
7) Tomlin, N. and Sklucki, T., Ground deformation around a
tunnel excavation in Bunter Sandstone. (British Geotechnica l
Society, Proc. of 'Conf. on Rock Engineering' Newcastle, UK 1977)
623-40
8) McCau l, C., Settlements caused by tunnelling in weak grounds
at Stockton-on-Tees. (Transport Road Research Laboratory, supp
Report 383 , 1978)
9) Att ewell, P. B. , Farmer I. W. , and Glossop, N. H., Ground
deformation caused by tunnelling in silty alluvial clay. (Ground
Engineering, 11, no.8, Nov 1978) 32-41
10) Glossop N. H. et al. Geotechnical aspects of shallow tunnel
construction in Belfast estuarine deposits. (IMM , Tunn. '79) 45-50
11) O'Reilly, M. P. et al. Comparison of settlements resulting
from three methods of tunnelling in loose, cohesion less soil.
(Ground movement and structures: proceedings of the second
international conference, Card iff, UK, 1980. Pub: 1981) 359-76
12) Toombs, A. F., Settlement caused by tunnelling beneath a
motorwayembankment. (Transport Road Research Laboratory,
supp report 547, 1980)
13) West, G., Heath, W. G. , and McCaul, C., Measurementofthe
effects of tunnelling at York Way. London. (Ground Eng ineering,
14, no.5, July 1981) 45-53
14) Atkinson , J. H., Orr, T. L. L., and Potts, D. M., Research
studies into the behaviour of tunnels and tunnel linings in soft
ground. (TRR L, supp report 176, 1975)
15) Davis, E. H., et al , The stability of shallow tunnels and
underground openings in cohesive material. (Geotechnique, 30,
1980) 397-416
16) Kimura , T., and Ma ir, R. J., Centrifugal testing of model
tunnels in soft clay. (Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Soil Mechan ics and Foundation Engineering,
Stockholm, June 1981 - Published by Balkema 1981) vol.1, 319-22
17) Ma ir, R. J., Gunn M. J., and O'Reilly, M. P., Ground
movements around shallow tunnels in soft clay. [see Ref 16] 323-8
18) Martos, F., Concerning an approximate equation of the
subsidence trough and its time factors. (International Strata
Control Congress, Leipzig 1958) 191-205
19) Schm idt, B., Settlements and ground movements associated
with tunnelling in soil. (Un iversity of Illinois Ph.D thesis, 1969)
C. Maximu m depth to axis, Z of 10m for granular materials

D. Maximum depth to axis, Z of 30m for cohesive materi als
Stri ctly, therefore, they are only applicable within these

limits, but the indications are that the values would not be
20) Mai r, R. J_ Centrifugal modelling of tunnel construction in

soft clay. (C;: rri:>ridge University Ph.D thesis, 1979)
21) Glossop 1'- . H., Soil deformation caused by soft ground
tunnelling. (Jriversity of Durham Ph.D thesis, 1977)
22) Pott s, D. M., Behaviour of lined and unlined tunnels in sand.
(University d Cambridge Ph.D thesis, 1976)
23) Cording E J. et al., Displacements around tunnels in soil.
(Report to lJ'S JoT prepared at University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign . DOT-TST-76T- 22, 1976)
24) Atkinso1 , J. H., Brown, E. T., and Potts, D. M., Collapse of
shallow unliwleJ tunnels in dense sand. (Tunnels and Tunnell ing ,
May/June 1975) 81; 84; 87
25) Attewell , :J. B., Ground movements caused by tunnelling in
soil. (Large ~rcund movements and structures: proceed ings of the
conference, :::a:rd iff, July 1977 - Published by Pen tech Press, 1978)
812-948
26) Morgan . H. D., and Bartl ett, J. V., The Victoria Line: 3,
tunnel design. (Proc. Institution of Civil Eng ineers, supplementa ry
volume, 1963) 377-95
27) Lyons, P. C., The Jubilee Line: 2, construction from Baker Street
to Bond Stre:t exclusive and from Admiralty Arch to Aldwych.
(Proceed ings af the Institution of Civil Engineers supplementary
vol ume, 1963) 377-95
28) O'Rou rkz, T. D. and Trautmann , C. H., Buried pipeline
response to ~unnelling. (Europipe '82 Conference, Basel, 1982)
29) Hen ry, K., Grangemouth tunnel sewer. (Tunnels and
Tunnelling, Jaruary 1974) 25-9
30) West, G <IJd O'Reil ly, M. P., Methods of treating the ground.
(Tunne ls anc Tunnel li ng, September 1978) 25-9
31) Bartlett, J:V., Bigg art, A. R., and Triggs, R. L., The bentonite
tunnelling r.rachine. (Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, 5-+, Jt 1, 1973) 605-24
32) Eadie, 1-L S., Settlements observed above a tunnel in sand.
(Tunnels anc Tunnelling, September/October 1977) 93-4
33) Clough '3. W., and Schm idt, B., Design and performance
of excavatio'1 end tunnels in soft clay: state of the art report.
(International Symposium on Soft Clay, Bangkok, 1977)
34) Broms, B. 3., and Ben nerma rk, H., Stabilityofclayatvertical
openings. (J. Scil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, 93 , SM1 , 1967) 71-4
35) Atki nso m, J. H., and Ma ir, R. J., Soil Mechanics and aspects
of soft ground tunnelling. (Ground Eng ineering, 14, no.5, July
1981) 20-38
36) Marslan j , A., Large in situ tests to measure the properties
of stiff fissu~ea. clays. (Proceedings of the First Austra lia-New
Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, 1971) 180-9
37) SkemptGn, A. W., and MacDonald D. H., Allowable
Settlement in E'uildings. (Proc. lnstn Civ. Eng., 5, Ill , 1956) 727-68
38) Burland , J. B. and Wroth , C. P., Settlement of buildings
and associatea damage. (Settlement of Structures Conference,
Cambridge 1974- Published by Pentech Press, 1975) 611 -5 1
39) New, B. M , Wild, P. T., and Bishop, C. J., Bentonite
tunnelling beneath major services in loose ground. (Tunnels and
Tunnel li ng, JJne 1980) 14-6
40) Symons, I. F., Chard, B., and Carder, D. R., Ground
movements caJsed by deep trench construction. (Proceed ings of
Sewerage a , London ICE 1982)
appreciably different for reasonable

extrapolation beyond the limits of 'B',
'C' and 'D' above, but the limitation on
cover must not be contravened. Further,
the analysis given is two-dimensional
May 20 15 I Tunnels \ 65
r'\ 1
In~E ~H N~~
---1
SETTLEMENT
and, although this may be satisfactory in the preciction of

conditions subsequent to the tunnel construction:, Cther
significant ground deformations of a three-dimersional
character may occur during the passing of the tunnel face
ll Gl 12011 351. Considerable monitoring of ground and building
settlement is now routinely carried out on most Urrnelling
projects in urban areas. Where the extent and/or magnitude of
the predicted settlement are important, considera ~ icn should
be given to arranging the construction program~ so that the
settlement profile is determined in a 'safe' locatiolfl , e.g. under
parkland, as early as possible in the project.
Such data interpreted within the framework giJe1 here
enable the predictions made during the design stag~s to be
revised so that decisions on costly underpinning cr ;p-ound
treatment can be made on the best available info-rration.
CONCLUSION
The researches of the past decade have greatly i~r::>ved the
understanding of the settlement of the ground that results
from tunnelling, and the designers and constructor~ of
tunnels are today in a much better position to esti1111ate and
to some extent control such ground movements.
Considerable gaps in knowledge remain, however, a1d the
amount of usable field data is still quite limited; ihi; is
particularly so for subsurface deformations, espec.. al1y close to
the tunnel periphery, where any non-uniformity cr ;asymmetry
in the situation can be magnified and exaggerated.
Clients, consulting engineers and contractors could do much
to add to the store of knowledge; in many cases th5 would
only involve marginal extensions to settlement monitoring
programmes that are already undertaken. ln the past data
collected on ground settlements has often been les~ than
comprehensive.
The work described in this

paper forms part
of the programme
of the Transport
and Road Research Laboratory
and the paper is
published with
the permission of
the director. Any
views expressed
are not necessarily those of the
Department of the
Environment or of
the Department of
Transport.
This paper was
.first published by
the Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy in 1982,
and is republished with their
kind permission.
ln many instances settlements

above the tunnel centre line only were
obtained, so the lateral extent of the
disturbance and the distortions in the
ground cannot be determined.
The minimum requirements for
settlement data to be suitable for
analysis are:
1. Complete definition of the settlement
trough - this requires measurements

of settlement to be made to a
distance of 1.5 to 2.5 times the depth
of the tunnel from centre line
2. lnformation on ground conditions,
including water table levels and some
indication of soil consistency, such as
undrained shear strength or SPT
3. Details of tunnel size, depth, method
of construction and lining
The ground deformations due to
tunnelling having been estimated, their
effect on nearby structures and services
has to be assessed. The interactions
between ground and structures can be
extremely complex and only broad-brush
treatments are currently available to
tackle the problem 13711381. The problem
is inherently less difficult for services
and the situation is further improved
by research into the effects of nearby
excavations on them 1281[391101 n
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May 20 15 I Tunnels
I 71
EVENTS
---
--- - - - - - --1
- - - -- - - -------
Eurock 2015 & 64th

Geomechanics Colloquium
What's on
2015
/SRM Congress 2075

10-13 May 2015
Montreal, Quebec
Held in conjunction with the ClM
Convention for 2015, the International
Symposium on Rock Mechanics holds its
internationa 1 conference every four years.
There will be a one-day symposium on
"Shale and Rock Mechanics as Appli ed to
Slopes, Tunnels, Mines and Hydrocarbon
Extraction " (ARMA Et CARMA Initiative),
Chaired by Herbert Einstein of MlT.
www. ISRM2015.com
World Tunnel Congress 2075

22-28 May 2015
Dubrovnik, Croatia
WTC 2015 he ads to Croatia as the
annua l event returns to Europe. The
motto of the conference is 'Promoting
Tunnelling in the South East Europe
Region'. The organisers have said that
they hope for a sharing of in ternational
experience with local groups.
www.wtc 15.com
RETC
7-10 June 2015
New Orleans, USA
The biennel conferece will be held at
the Sheraton Hotel in New Orleans,
Louisiana this year. The organisers have
annou nced that the 2015 show should
be as successful as the 2013 event which
had the largest number of attendees,
exhibitors and papers in the show's
history.
www.retc.org
49th US Rock Mechanics I

Geomechanics Symposium
28 June-1 July 2015
San Francisco, California
The 20 15 program will focus on new
and exciting advances in rock mechanics
and geomechan ics and encompasses
all aspects of rock mechanics, rock
engineering, and geomechanics.
www.armasymposium. org/
Tunnel Expo Turkey

27-29 August 2015
Istanbul, Turkey
Turkey is fast growing in th e tunneling
sector. This event namely Tunnel Expo
Turkey focuses on the fast growth.
www. l Otimes.com/tunnel-expo-turkey
72
Crossrail's tunnelling story

exlitibit -final day
31 .\1.:gust 2015
Lordon, UK
The fina l day of the six-month exhibit
on :rossrail at the London Transport
Mu~emm in Covent Garden. It's open
seven days a week for the majority of
the d<Jy, don't miss out.
www.ltmuseu.m.co. u.k
Ba:tma Conexpo Africa 2015

15- 18 September 2015
Joh3rmesburg, South Africa
The p-emiere of bauma Africa in
Sep: ember 2013 attracted 754 exhibitors
fran 38 countries and 14,700 visitors
fran over 100 co untri es. Covering a tota l
of EO,OOOsq .m of exhibition space, this is
the bi;mest event for the sector in
Afri::a .
ww .v.'JCajrica. com
Roads. Bridges. Tunnels

/nt~rnational Exhibition
23-25 September 2015
St. ::>etersburg, Russia
Roads. Bridges. Tunnels (the
lntemational Specialised Exhibition)
takes "Jlace in St. Petersburg, Russia from
23 September to 25 September. The
traer ; how is organised by Restec.
ww;.v. ~ofairs . com
/CUE 2015
29 September- 1 October 2015
Louis'till e, Kentucky
The largest demonstration show in
Nor: h America for the construction and
util ities industries. This biennial show
attr:acs persons involved in the electric,
cable, sewer/water, gas, construction and
public works sectors. Hands-on, practical
desmcnstrations of construction and
util ity equipment are also planned to be
helC alongside the event.
www. :cuee.com
Wo rkshop on Innovations and

ChaHenges in Tunnelling
5-6 October 201 5
Kin g-st on, Ontario
Save t1e date for the TAC 2015
Works1op, AGM and an nu al awards
din ner, to be held at Queen 's University's
Gra mt 1-lall in Kingston. Further details
of the workshop including program and
regi~tT3tion will be available in Summer
2013.
www. ~unnelcanada . ca
7 - 10 October 2015
Salzburg, Austria
The lSRM Regiona l Symposium EUROCK
2015 Future Development of Rock
Mechanics, is to be held in conjunction
with the 64th annua l Geomechanics
Colloquium also in Salzburg.
www.eu.rock2 015.eom
25th World Road Congress

2-6 November 201 5
Seoul, South Korea
The World Road Congress has been held
every four yea rs fo r more than 100 yea rs.
Since the first meeting in Paris in 1908,
it has toured the member countries
of the non-government organization,
Perman ent International Association of
Road Congresses (PlARC).
www.aipcrseou.l2015. org
ITA Tunnel Awards

19 November 2015
1-l agerbach, Switzerland
The In ternational Tunnelling Association
has launched its own independent
awards to recognise industry
achievements. The first presentation
will be held alongside a conference and
banquet at the Hagerbach Test Gallery.
www.awards. ita_aites. org
Third Arabian Tunnelling

Conference and Exhibition
23-25 November 2015
Dubai, UAE
This conference is the industry's
opportunity to share the knowledge,
projects and application experiences,
and provide you the opportunity to hear
what others have to say. Case studies,
which show real-world applications and
the implementation of new technologies.
www.atcita.com
Stuva Conference
1-3 December 2015
Dortmund, Germany
Held every two years, this conference
sees 1,500 participants and visitors
from about 20 countries. lt is numbered
among the world 's leading get-togethers
for und erground construction experts. ln
2015 the chosen venue for this premier
event is Dortmund .
www.stuva -conference. com
Building simulation
7-9 December 2015
1-lyderabad, India
This conference is the 14th International
Conference of the International Building
Performance Simulation Association.
www.bs2015.in
-----;-~~ - ~ I
2076
British Tunnelling Society

International Symposium on
Tunnel Safety and Security
16-18 March 2016
Montreal, Canada
Tunnel safety and security is a challenge
for both private and public sectors.
lSTSS provides a forum to discuss
current practice and emerging trends
and research in the field of tunnel safety
and security. Each day will be opened by
invited Keynote Speakers.
www. istss.se/en
NASTT's No Dig Show

20-24 March 2016
Dallas, USA
The overall No-Dig Show program is
focused on one objective: helping you
maximize your investment in trench less
tech nologies, services and applications.
Owners, utilities and municipalities can
immediately benefit.
www.nodigshow. com
Bauma 2016
11-17 April 2016
Munich, Germany
The 31st meeting of the world 's largest
trade fair for construction machinery,
building material machines, mining
machines, construction vehicles and
construction equipment.
www.bauma.de/en
World Tunnel Congress and

North American Tunnelling
conference 2016
June 2016
San Francisco, California
The 2016 World Tunnel Congress
(WTC) and the 39th General Assembly
of the International Tunn ellin g and
Underground Space Association (lTA) will
be held in conjunction with the UCA's
North American Tunneling conference.
Bringing the three events together in the
US is unprecendented.
www. smenet. org
www.wtc2016.us
GeoChina International
Conference
25-27 July 2016
Shandong, China
This conference will provide a
showcase for recent developme nts and
advancements in design, construction,
and safety lnspections of transportation
lnfrastructures and offer a forum to
discuss and debate future directions for
the 21st century. Conference topics will
cover a broad array of issues
www.geochina2016.geoconforg
The BTS has a membership of alma~ ~00 individual and 60 corporate members. It is
one of the most vibrant gatherings Jfprofessional tunnel lers in the world and traces its
history back to its founding in 1971 . Regular BTS monthly meetings are hosted at the
Institution of Civil Engineers in Londo1 from 5.30pm every third Thursday of the month.
BTS Annual Dinner

8 May 2015
The BTS An nual Dinner will be held at the now traditional Brewery venue at
52 Chiswell Street in Central Londo-,. The event starts at 7.00pm and runs
until1 .00am. Booking is now clo~d, although John Scholey can be contacted in
case of cancellations.
BTS Annual General Meetir.g and East Side Access project

presentation
21 May 2015
The East Side Access Project in New York is the first expansion of commuter rail in
New York in over 100 years. Wher omplete it will provide a direct link for Long
Island Rail Road commuters to a mew terminal beneath the existing 100 year old
Grand Central Terminal on the east 3ide of Manhattan.
Speaker: Andy Tompson
Tunnelling in the Lambeth Group: how can we stop it going wrong?

18 June 2015
A presentation by a leading geologi~ with expertise in the interpretation of
complex soils and rocks as well as tre geology of London and Southeast Engl and.
Speaker: Jackie Skipper
BTSYM presentation: Fastemi.,gs in tunnels

25 June 2015
A presentation by speakers from speoeialist design company Dr. Sauer 8: Partners
and supplier Fischer Fixings. The two speakers have in previous years hosted
succesful workshop sessions on th s 3ubject.
Speakers: Panos Spyridis and Mirka Valovicova
BTS Design and Construction Course

29 June - 3 July 2015
The five-day an nual BTS Tunnel Design and Construction Course aims to provide
a comprehensive introd uction to all aspects of tunnelling. The course speakers are
all recognised industry experts in their own field s and drawn from the BTS. Five
BTS-sponsored spaces are avail able.
Innovation and technology in segmental lining design

17 September 2015
A presentation by a tunnel engin eer who has extensively published on topics
related to segmentallinin g solutio1s
Speaker: Anthony 1-larding
Waterview Connection project in Auckland, New Zealand

15 October 2015
The Waterview Connection project is New Zealand 's largest and most complex
roading project. lt is due to be com~eted by 2017, and includes one of the
country's most challenging tunnels b -date: 2.4km of 14.1 m-diameter twin bores.
Speaker: Chris Ashton
If you have a topic or project you fEl would be suitable for a BTS evening
presentation, please contact:
Greg James: [email protected] ~
Dave Terry: [email protected]_uk
See the society website for furthe1 iitformation: www.britishtunnelling.org. uk

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