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UCD Teaching and Learning

Exploring Educational Theory

Abridged

Contributing Lecturer David Jennings & Paul Surgenor

Please note the materials in this workbook are based on the contents of UCD Teaching and Learning Open Educational Resources website, for further details and online activities visit: www.ucdoer.ie

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Table of Contents
Exploring Educational Theory .....................................................................................1 What is Learning? ....................................................................................................4 Successful Learning ................................................................................................5 Education Theory .....................................................................................................6 Learning Theory Definitions .....................................................................................8 Epistemology & Learning Theories ........................................................................11 Psychological Perspectives ...................................................................................15 Constructivism & Social Constructivism................................................................20 Main Constructivist Theorists ................................................................................23 Models of learning in the Constructivist Realm .....................................................26 Applying Constructivism Approaches in the Classroom .......................................29 Social Constructivism in the classroom ................................................................31 Reciprocal Teaching ..........................................................................................31 Cooperative Learning .........................................................................................31 Situated Learning ...............................................................................................31 Anchored Instruction ..........................................................................................32 Selected Bibliography ........................................................................................34

Please note the materials in this workbook are based on the contents of UCD Teaching and Learning Open Educational Resources website, for further details and online activities visit: www.ucdoer.ie

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What is Learning?
Learning is a latent construct and everyone has their own idea of what it is, how it occurs, and the relationship between teaching and learning: - - I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think Socrates I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn A. Einstein - Personally, I am always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught W. Churchill - ... education at the University mostly worked by the age-old method of putting a lot of young people in the vicinity of a lot of books and hoping that something would pass from one to the other T. Pratchett In psychology and education a common definition of learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris,2004; Ormrod, 1995). Most people, even within the educational profession, have not reflected on what their own idea or theory of learning is. With this in mind...:

Task: Take three minutes to think about your own ideas of learning. Without worrying about technical terminology, how would you define your ideas or theories of learning?

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Successful Learning (Race, P. 2006)

Before we delve into theoretical terminology let us step back and consider what we deem learning to be in laymans terms, and what are the key constituents of successful learning, and how might they inform our conception of theories? Task: Think of something you are good at something that you know you do well. Describe, in a few words, how you became good at this

Collectively the most common themes in answering are: Practice, repetition How is this enabled in our teaching? By doing it Do we have enough labs, seminars, work-place scenarios? By trial and error How might we capture this in our assessment protocol? By getting it wrong first, then learning from mistakes Is this possible to accept in professional programmes, how do we enable this process? Consider the following and keep it in mind as you begin to read the theoretical approaches
Five Factors underpinning Successful Learning Wanting Needing Doing Feedback Digesting motivation, interest, enthusiasm necessity, survival, saving face practice, trial and error other peoples reactions seeing the results making sense of what has been learnt, realizing, gaining ownership.

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Education Theory
Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. It is largely an umbrella term, being comprised of a number of theories, rather than a single explanation of how we learn, and how we should teach. Rather, it is affected by several factors, including theoretical perspective and epistemological position. There is no one, clear, universal explanation of how we learn and subsequent guidebook as to how we should teach. Rather, there are a range of theories, each with their background in a different psychological and epistemological tradition. To understand learning then, we have to understand the theories, and the rationale behind them. While much learning can be attributed to social imitation or cultural lessons, Bereiter (1990) queries how we acquire more complex knowledge, and states that it is this learning that gives rise to the need for an educational learning theory. Why use Theories? Theories are used for numerous reasons: 1. Help explain a puzzling or complex issue and to predict its occurrence in the future Learning is a latent variable so there is no clear and universal way to explain and predict learning. To help explain this process, therefore, theories based on differing epistemological positions have been developed to explain the procedure. 2. Allow the transfer of information in one setting to that of another - The complex and comprehensive conceptual explanations provided within the framework of a theory can be applied in different settings. Theories provide different "lenses" through which to look at complicated problems and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of the data and providing a framework within which to conduct their analysis (Reeves, Albert, Kuper, & Hodges, 2008).

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3.

Theories provide greater opportunities for improvement by design - By providing information about the mechanisms underlying learning and performance, an awareness of theories and can help us to design environments to improve potential for learning

In terms of the application of psychological theories about learning and instruction to education, Sternberg (2008) proposes five reasons: 1. Doing so enables one to have a scientific basis for education in how people think, feel, and/or motivate themselves rather than only to guess what intuitively might make sense. 2. 3. 4. 5. The process of learning focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. A learning theory is an attempt to describe what happens when we learn and how we learn. Although something we often take for granted, learning is a complex process which, according to Hill (2002) has two main functions: the first is that it provides us with the vocabulary and conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe; and the second that it directs us where to look for solutions to practical problems. While theories themselves dont give us solutions, they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions Good theories are specific enough to specify what the educational interventions should look like. If the theory is sufficiently specific, it will also specify what the assessments of instruction should look like. Good theories are disconfirmable, so they provide the basis for discovering whether the intervention actually does or does not work. One of the best ways to test theories and advance is through practical implementations.

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Learning Theory Definitions

Most theorists agree that learning cannot be studied directly, but its nature can be inferred from changes in behaviour (apart from B.F. Skinner who claims that behavioural changes are learning and therefore no further process need be inferred). The majority of learning theorists share the following basic definitional assumptions about learning: 1. Learning is referred to as a persistent change in human performance or potential - True whether or not they actually have an opportunity to exhibit the newly acquired performance

2. To be considered learning, a change in performance must come about as a result of the learners experience and interaction with the world Some changes (e.g., fine motor control) can be attributed to maturation and therefore may not considered learned. Behaviour changes (e.g., search for food when hungry) are explained on the basis of temporary states but dont imply learning. Learning requires experience, but what these are, how theyre used, & how they bring about learning constitute the focus of every learning theory.

The history of the application of psychological theories to education has been described as a spotty one (Sternberg, 2008). John Dewey (1938/1997) was among the first serious scholars of education to take this task seriously, and much of contemporary psychology of education may be seen as originating in large part with Deweys work.

There is an implicit assumption that there is a tangible connection between educational theory and practice. In reality though, the relationship between educational theory and classroom practice is more complex than is usually assumed. Below, Saugstad (2002) discusses the differing definitions of theory and practice:

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Epistemology & Learning Theories

Epistemology basic is a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge. Such beliefs influence the development of knowledge because they are considered to be the central values or theories that are functionally connected to most other beliefs and knowledge (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997). Our own personal epistemology influences our own theories of learning, and consequently, how we approach, design, and delivery our classes. The terms used to describe epistemological positions vary, depending on whether its describing the origin or the acquisition of knowledge. A brief overview of the key terms is presented in Figure 1.

Origin of Knowledge

Objectivism

Pragmatism

Interpretivism

Acquiring Knowledge

Empiricism

Pragmatism

Constructivism

Pre-procedural knowing

knowing Procedural

Constructed knowing

Figure 1. Key Epistemological Terms

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Objectivism What is knowledge? Posits that knowledge is absolute and true, and is independent from and outside of the individual. Learning involves the transfer of what exists in reality to what is known by the learner. Source of knowledge? Reality exists external to the individual, so therefore knowledge simply exists and there is no need to construct knowledge. Knowledge is acquired by experience. Associated terminology? Objectivism is linked with empiricism - a process of gaining knowledge, in which sensory experience (what we can quantify with our own senses) is the only valid source of knowledge. Kuhn and Weinstock (2002) describe this way of knowledge acquisition as pre-procedural knowing, or the first way to approach acquiring information. In English? Type of class/lecture style?

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Pragmatism What is knowledge? Pragmatism regards knowledge as a worthy but improbable goal. This approach emphasises theories of meaning (of what works) with the understanding that this may not reflect reality. Source of knowledge? Associated terminology? Knowledge is interpreted and negotiated, through a process of experience and reason. Pragmatism also used when describing the acquisition of knowledge, and involves active processing where no single truth exists (Brownlee et al, 2008). Kuhn & Weinstock (2002) describe this way of knowledge acquisition as procedural knowing In English? Type of class/lecture style?

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Interpretivism What is knowledge? In constructivism knowledge is not uniform and identical. Rather, its constructed at an individual level and exists in multiple formats. Source of knowledge? Knowledge is gained through reason, by considering the available information and assembling a personal interpretation. Its not concerned with whether knowledge is true in the absolute sense, since truth depends on the knowers frame of reference. Associated terminology? Interpretativism is linked with constructivism. Knowledge is constructed individual or collectively, and varies from person to person. These constructed knowing beliefs are more likely to be linked to constructivist beliefs in learning (Brownlee, 2003; Hammer, 2003), which are based on a view of knowledge as complex, tentative, and needing to be actively critiqued (Gill, Ashton, & Algina, 2004). In English? Type of class/lecture style? Each learning theory, or psychological explanation of teaching and learning, can be traced back to one of these main epistemological traditions.

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Psychological Perspectives
The study of learning itself isnt a discipline, it has been approached by researchers from a variety of disciplinary perspectives which has resulted in a large number of theoretical approaches, e.g.: Gestalt Cognitivist Constructivist/Social constructivist Humanist Progressive enquiry Theories into models Models help us to make sense of our world, offering us a way of comprehending an otherwise incomprehensible problem. They help us to visualize a problem and break it down into discrete, manageable units. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user (Ryder, 2009) The broad range of theories that can be identified in, and applied to, learning in the classroom reflects the different ways in which epistemological traditions influence the experiences we have and how we feel they impact on learning. Psychoanalysis Behaviourist/Neo-behaviourist Experiential learning Social Learning Situated learning

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Figure 2: Approaches within Behaviourism Figure 3: Approaches within Cognitivism

Advanced Organizers Cone of Experience Information Processing Dual Coding Theory COGNITIVISM Concept Mapping Law of Effect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning BEHAVIOURISM

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Action Research Activity Theory

Anchored Instruction Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Andragogy Cognitive Apprenticeship

Generative Learning

CSCL/CSILE Instruction

Conversation Theory

Discovery Learning CONSTRUCTIVISM Inquiry Teaching

Interpretation Construction

Mind Tools

PBL

Play/Role Play

The Project Method

Schema Theory

Situated Cognition

Observational Learning Theory

Structural Knowledge

Social Constructivism

Goal-based Scenarios

Figure 4: Approaches within Constructivism

Which perspective? Shulman (1988) suggests that we should adopt the attitude of the disciplined eclectic view each theory critically for what it can contribute to solving important instructional problems.

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Behaviourism Surface learning; basic skills

Cognitivism Any deep processing: exploring/organizing content Instructor manages

Constructivism

Proponents

Collaborative learning

Applications

Instructor designs the learning environment.

problem solving and structured search activities, especially with group learning strategies. Actively process, store, and retrieve information for use.

Instructor mentors peer interaction and continuity of building on known concepts. Learners create their own unique education because learning is based on prior knowledge. Prior knowledge: design learning to assist students to build on what they

Design focus

Largely passive, responding to stimuli

Readiness: students will learn concepts that are Climate for learning: does Role of learner the environment have the right stimuli to promote learning? maturing. Learners customize their learning: provide a range of learning activities and concepts for core course objectives.

know. Opportunity: ZPD = area between what a learner can do individually vs. assisted by peer interaction and teaching. Inquiry learning: teachers are not the sole possessors of knowledge and perspective but co- learners and guides.

Task: Take six minutes to think about your own ideas of learning. Try to apply the relevant terminology - how would you define your ideas or theories of learning?

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Constructivism & Social Constructivism

Constructivism is the philosophical and scientific position that knowledge arises through a process of active construction. (Mascolol & Fischer, 2005) As long as there were people asking each other questions, we have had constructivist classrooms. Constructivism, the study of learning, is about how we all make sense of our world, and that really hasnt changed. (Brooks, 1999) Background Constructivism and Social Constructivism are two similar learning theories which share a large number of underlying assumptions, and an interpretive epistemological position. Both approaches Social constructivism

- Deep roots classical antiquity. Socrates, in - Emphasis is on the collaborative nature of dialogue with his followers, asked directed questions that led his students to realize learning and the importance of cultural and social context.

for themselves the weaknesses in their - All cognitive functions are believed to thinking. originate in, and are explained as products - Learning is perceived as an active, not a of social interactions passive, process, where knowledge is - Learning is more than the assimilation of constructed, not acquired new knowledge by learners; it was the - Knowledge construction is based on personal experiences and the continual testing of hypotheses - Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process, based on past experiences and cultural factors. process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge community. - Believed that constructivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of language and consequently failed to understand that learning is a collaborative process.

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Underlying Assumptions Jonassen (1994) proposed that there are eight characteristics that underline the constructivist learning environments and are applicable to both perspectives: 1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality. 2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world. 3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction. 4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context. 5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real- world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction. 6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience. 7. Constructivist learning environments "enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction." 8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition." Epistemology The default epistemology in education is an empirical/reductionist approach to teaching and learning. The shared epistemological basis for these two perspectives, on the other hand, is interpretativism, where knowledge is believed to be acquired through involvement with content instead of imitation or repetition (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). There is no absolute knowledge, just our interpretation of it. The acquisition of knowledge therefore requires the individual to consider the information and - based on their past experiences, personal views, and cultural background - construct an interpretation of the information that is being presented to them.

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Students construct their own meaning by building on their previous knowledge and experience. New ideas and experiences are matched against existing knowledge, and the learner constructs new or adapted rules to make sense of the world. In such an environment the teacher cannot be in charge of the students learning, since everyones view of reality will be so different and students will come to learning already possessing their own constructs of the world. Teaching styles based on this approach therefore mark a conscious effort to move from these traditional, objectivist models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models (Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student-centred approach. Query: How would you respond to the suggestion that an interpretativist epistemology applies only to Arts or Humanities subjects, and not more Scientific or Mathematical subjects?

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Main Constructivist Theorists

John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. Bruner (1990) and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructivists. Dewey John Dewey rejected the notion that schools should focus on repetitive, rote memorization & proposed a method of "directed living" students would engage in real-world, practical workshops in which they would demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration. Students should be provided with opportunities to think from themselves and articulate their thoughts. Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence." Piaget1 Piaget rejected the idea that learning was the passive assimilation of given knowledge. Instead, he proposed that learning is a dynamic process comprising successive stages of adaption to reality during which learners actively construct knowledge by creating and testing their own theories of the world. Although less contemporary & influential, it has inspired several important educational principles such as:

A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learners previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.
1

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Discovery learning Sensitivity to childrens readiness Acceptance of individual differences Learners dont have knowledge forced on them they create it for themselves

Bruner Influenced by Vygotsky, Bruner emphasises the role of the teacher, language and instruction. He thought that different processes were used by learners in problem solving, that these vary from person to person and that social interaction lay at the root of good learning. Bruner builds on the Socratic tradition of learning through dialogue, encouraging the learner to come to enlighten themselves through reflection. Careful curriculum design is essential so that one area builds upon the other. Learning must therefore be a process of discovery where learners build their own knowledge, with the active dialogue of teachers, building on their existing knowledge. Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge. He provides the following principles of constructivistic learning: Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). Vygotsky Social constructivism was developed by Vygotsky. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its social context. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

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According to Vygotsky: Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. (p. 57) Although Vygotsky died at the age of 38 in 1934, most of his publications did not appear in English until after 1960. There are, however, a growing number of applications of social constructivism in the area of educational technology. By the 1980s the research of Dewey and Vygotsky had blended with Piaget's work in developmental psychology into the broad approach of constructivism. The basic tenet of constructivism is that students learn by doing rather than observing. Students bring prior knowledge into a learning situation in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it. This process of interpretation, articulation, and re-evaluation is repeated until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject.

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Applying Constructivism Approaches in the Classroom

General Overview In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning. In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view - not as inert factoids to be memorized.
Key assumptions of this perspective include: 1. What the student currently believes, whether correct or incorrect, is important. 2. Despite having the same learning experience, each individual will base their learning on the understanding and meaning personal to them. 3. Understanding or constructing a meaning is an active and continuous process.. 4. Learning may involve some conceptual changes. 5. When students construct a new meaning, they may not believe it but may give it provisional acceptance or even rejection. 6. Learning is an active, not a passive, process and depends on the students taking responsibility to learn.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions

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There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom, with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction, and the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. Adults in the learners environment are conduits for the tools of the culture, which include language, cultural history, social context, and more recently, electronic forms of information access. In social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to previously learned material. Role of the teacher Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers act as a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings Role of the student The expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the students plays a more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning.

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Social Constructivism in the classroom

Reciprocal Teaching Where a teacher and 2 to 4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on a topic. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies: i. ii. iii. iv. Questioning Summarizing Clarifying Predicting

This creates a ZPD in which students gradually assume more responsibility for the material, and through collaboratation, forge group expectations for high-level thinking, and acquire skills vital for learning and success in everyday life. Cooperative Learning More expert peers can also spur childrens development along as long as they adjust the help they provide to fit the less mature childs ZPD.

Situated Learning As early as 1929 concern was raised (Whitehead) that the way students learned in school resulted in a limited, inert form of knowledge, useful only for passing examinations. More recently several theorists have argued that for knowledge to be active it should be learned:

In a meaningful context Through active learning

The general term for this type of learning activity is situated learning. Situated learning proponents argue that knowledge cannot be taught in an abstract manner, and that to be useful, it must be situated in a relevant or "authentic" context (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997).

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Anchored Instruction The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting topic. The learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that helps students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and critical thinking. Anchored instruction emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think about and work on problems and emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving. Other things you can do: Encourage team working and collaboration Promote discussion or debates Set up study groups for peer learning Allocate a small proportion of grades for peer assessment and train students in the process and criteria Show students models of good practice in essay writing and project work Be aware of your own role as a model of the way things are done...be explicit about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of your subject Assessment Constructivists believe that assessment should be used as a tool to enhance both the student's learning and the teacher's understanding of student's progress. It should not be used as an accountability tool that serves to stress or demoralise students. Types of assessment aligned to this epistemological position include reflective journals/portfolios, case studies, group-based projects, presentations (verbal or poster), debates, role playing etc.

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Within social constructivism particularly there is greater scope for involving students in the entire process: i. ii. iii. iv. Brooks and Brooks (1993) state that rather than saying "No" when a student does not give the exact answer being sought, the constructivist teacher attempts to understand the student's current thinking about the topic. Through nonjudgmental questioning, the teacher leads the student to construct new understanding and acquire new skills. Task: Individually, take one class you have given recently, or will be giving shortly. Which elements of this class could you change to align it with either the constructivist or social constructivist perspective? Criteria Method Marking Feedback

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Selected Bibliography Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Allyn & Bacon, Boston: MA Hill, W.F. (2002) Learning: A survey of psychological interpretation (7th ed), Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for teachers. McGraw-Hill, Open University Press: Berkshire. Ormrod, J.E. (1995). Human Learning (2nd ed.). New Jersey, Prentice Hall. Race, P. (2006) The Lecturer's Toolkit: A Practical Guide to Assessment, Learning and Teaching. Routledge Ryder, M (2009) Instructional Design Models. Downloaded from http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html on 30 March 2009)

Selected Resources List of learning theories and how they apply to practice: http://tip.psychology.org/ List of models and good info on each: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html Outline of learning theories: http://www.learning-theories.com/

End of WorkBook

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