Solar Project Report
Solar Project Report
Solar Project Report
1. Introduction
1.1 About the Book
1.2 PV overview and history
1.3 SPV at CEL
1.2 Why Solar?
1.3 Energy Requirements
1.4 Demystify the Myths
1.5 Characteristics of Solar Energy
1.5.1 Solar energy an outline
1.5.2 Cost effectiveness
1.5.3 External costs of conventional electricity generation
3 System Components
3.1 Photovoltaic system components
3.2 The Solar panel
3.2.1 Types of Modules
3.2.2 Solar panel parameters
3.3 Battery
3.3.1 Battery Bank
3.3.2 Types of Batteries
3.3.3 Temperature effect
3.4 Power charge regulator
3.5 Converter
3.5.3 DC-DC converter
3.5.4 DC-AC converter
3.5.5 Additional features of inverter
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4 Design
4.1 Introduction and basic principles
4.2 System type selection
4.3 Home Appliances
4.4 Illustration and Flowchart for design of habitat PV system
4.5 Design process
4.5.1 Load estimation
4.5.2 Inverter rating
4.5.3 Daily energy supplied by the inverter
4.5.4 System voltage
4.5.5 Battery capacity
4.5.6 Consider for battery autonomy
4.5.7 Daily energy generated by panels
4.5.8 Solar radiation, capacity and number of panels
4.6 Wire sizing
4.7 Factors affecting performance of a PV system
6. Application
6.1 Habitat application
6.1.1 Solar lanterns
6.1.2 Domestic Habitat lighting and fan
6.1.3 Outdoor and street lighting
6.1.4 Water pumping
6.2 Industrial application
6.2.1 ONGC offshore power
6.2.2 Low power TV transmitter
6.2.3 Obstruction warning light at airport
6.2.4 Railway signalling(supplementary power)
6.2.5 Telecom towers
6.3 Defence Use
6.3.1 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Radio Equipment
6.3.2 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Wireless
Communication Equipment SCU-01
List of figure
Fig.1.1 SPV module for unmanned offshore applications
Fig.1.2 SPV module with screen printed liquid cast encapsulation technique
Fig.1.3 SPV modules of different types of solar cells
Fig. 1.4 SPV modules during 90s with increased efficiency
Fig. 1.5 mono crystalline SPV module
Fig.1.6 Solar insulation over India
Fig. 1.7 Indias energy balance India has had a negative energy balance for decades
Which has forced the purchase of energy from outside the country?
Fig: 1.8 Energy consumption in power sector (2005)
Fig: 1.9 Per capita Residential Electricity demand (kWh/per person)
Fig 1.10 Indias electricity use breakdown in commercial and residential buildings
Fig 1.11 Actual power production capacity of a solar PV system
Fig 1.12 sustainable energy solution
Fig 1.13 Various layouts for panel grafting on urban households.
Fig 1.14 Evolution of competitive solar technology.
Fig 1.15 Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab
Fig 1.16 A 5-megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed at village
Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan
Fig. 2.1 An example of a solar water heating system (antifreeze is used so that the
Liquid does not freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing)
Fig 2.2 Electricity in a typical solar cell
Fig 2.3 Process of production of electricity in a solar power plant
Fig 2.4: 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, California.
Fig 2.5 Solar radiation map of India
Fig 2.6: Flow of energy in a solar PV system
Fig 2.7(a) p-n junction silicon semiconductor
Fig 2.7(b) A solar cell connected to an ammeter showing a deflection when exposed
to light.
Fig 2.8: photovoltaic solar cell to photovoltaic solar array
Fig 2.9 A PV system showing the balance of components
Fig 2.10 A Lead Acid battery
Fig 2.11(a) Discharging process of a lead acid battery
Fig 2.11(b) Charging process of a lead acid battery
Fig 2.12 Nickel Cadmium Battery
Fig 2.13 Charge Controller
Fig 2.14 Solar inverters
Fig 2.15(a): A circuit diagram of solar installation with DC and AC loads
Fig 2.15(b) Flow chart of a stand-alone system
Fig 3.1: A basic solar PV system.
Fig 3.2: A working model of the basic solar PV system at CEL
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List of flowchart
Flowchart 1.1: Technology & types of PV cell.
Flowchart 2.1: the processes involved in the production of a solar cell
Flowchart 2.2 Flow chart of a grid tied system
Flowchart 2.3 operation with AC & DC load
Flowchart 4.1: design of habitat PV system
Flowchart 5.1 an overview of the entire process of installation of solar panels
Flowchart 5.2: Going ahead with installation of PV system
Flowchart 5.3 Creating a Stand-Alone Mount
Flowchart 5.4 Roof Mounting
Flowchart 5.5 making electrical wiring connections
Flowchart 5.6: Inverter connections
Flowchart 5.7 testing process flow
List of table
Table 1.1 Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies
Table 1.2: Overview of the usage of SPV systems in India
Table 3.1: The BoS items / components with BIS Standards specifications
Table 4.1 Power rating of some home appliances
Table 4.2 illustrative habitat appliance use in a day
Table 4.3: Calculation of load in Watt-hr
Table 4.4: Illustrative power (watt) use per day
Table 4.5: Tilt angle as per geographic latitude
1. Introduction
1.2 PV overview & history
PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to
dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are two broad categories of
technology used for PV cells, namely Crystalline silicon, as shown which accounts for the majority of PV cell
production;
Thin film, which is newer and growing in popularity.
The family tree gives an overview of these technologies available today. The type
of silicon that comprises a specific cell, based on the cell manufacturing process.
Each cell type has pros and cons. Mono-crystalline PV cells are the most expensive
and energy intensive to produce but usually yield the highest efficiencies. The
modules made from Polycrystalline silicon crystals are approximately 14% efficient
and are extremely good value for money. Amorphous solar modules are not too
susceptible to shading and are suited to low light levels.
Crystalline Silicon Technologies: Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure silicon
raw material such as those used in semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers that
are typically 150-200 microns (one Fifth of a millimeter) thick.
Thin Film Technologies: Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor
material barely 0.3 to 2 micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates. As
the semiconductor layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower than
the capital equipment and processing costs.
Conversion Efficiency: Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious
difference amongst PV cell technologies is in its conversion efficiency
Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV cell
technologies is in its conversion efficiency.
Evolving solar panels in India :
The development of solar cells for terrestrial applications was initiated at CEL following
Governments decision, in 1975, to mount concerted efforts in its high technology area.
CEL has carried out Extensive in-house R&D work spanning a decade for developing
the complete technology for the manufacture of silicon solar cells and modules and
designing, engineering and operating a pilot plant for production of such cells and
modules based on the process technology and production engineering so developed. The
activity also so included the development of a whole range of SPV systems and
undertaking large volume commercial production, supply, field installation and
commissioning of such systems. Starting with processing of 38mm diameter hyper pure
silicon wafers using vacuum metallization in 1978, CEL went through an evolutionary
development process in terms of both different sizes of cells and the whole range of
process technology from making them. It now manufactures, using technology
completely developed inhouse, 100mm diameter n+-p junction solar cells starting CZ
solar grid silicon wafer and employing low cost techniques of texturization, screenprinted silver metallization, antireflection coating and the state of art lamination
technology
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It is also clear that given the large proportion of poor and energy unserved population in
the country, every effort needs to be made to exploit the relatively abundant sources of
energy available to the country and it is in this situation the solar imperative is both
urgent and feasible to enable the country to meet long-term energy needs and also from
an energy security perspective, solar is the most secure of all sources, since it is
abundantly available.
Hence both technology routes for conversion of solar radiation into heat and electricity,
namely, solar thermal and solar photovoltaic, can effectively be harnessed providing
huge scalability for solar in India. Solar also provides the ability to generate power on a
distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition with short lead times.
1.5 Energy Requirements
Almost 400 million Indiansabout a third of the subcontinents populationdont have
access to electricity. This power deficit, which includes about 100,000 unelectrified
villages, places Indias annual per-capita electricity consumption at just 639 kilowatt
hoursamong the worlds lowest rates.
Since the 1980s, and still currently, India has encountered a negative balance in overall
energy consumption and production. This has resulted in the need to purchase energy
from outside the country to supply and fulfil the needs of the entire country. The
Government is more sensitive to renewable energy potential and has started to put
reforms and projects, incentives and legislation in place to convince investors and
companies to make the shift.
Fig. 1.7 Indias energy balance (Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration)
India has had a negative energy balance for decades which has forced the purchase of
energy from outside the country.
The breakdown of energy sources for power production of India in 2005. India is a large
consumer of coal, which makes up more than 57% of its total consumption.
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shall increase at higher growth rate to match with the projected growth of Indian
economy.
The map shown below shows the individual per capita demand of the individual states of
the country.
Fig 1.10 Indias electricity use breakdown in commercial and residential buildings.
(Source: Bassi, n.d.)
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In a typical commercial building in India, it is estimated that about 60% of the total
electricity is used for lighting, 32% for space conditioning as well as 8% for heating
ventilation and airconditioning.
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1.
(It produces 2.3 kW power enough to operate 10 household lamps of 23W (example)
for 10 hours.)
The fixed and one time installation cost for 1kW SPV system is a mere amount of Rs2,
70,000* ((INR)(current rate under MNRE for standalone system), where as it will have a
lifetime of 30 years with lowest of maintenance cost and one time free battery
replacement by CEL**.
For grid interactive hybrid SPV system the cost of installation is even a smaller amount
of Rs 180* per Watt.
(* The rate mentioned is not inclusive of subsidy or any relaxation. Subsidy may vary
from state to state as well as in hilly and plain areas)
(** Provided CEL is the SPV system installer)
3. Myth: Solar systems is not a sustainable solution.
Facts:
Considering various perspectives individually:
Self reliance
The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in India in 2009 was 96
kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to electricity.
The production capacity of solar systems can easily meet the above demands keeping in
mind the rich solar potential of India.
The average life of a solar system is 25years and hence a cost effective, long run and
permanent setup unaffected by the ever changing conventional source market.
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2. Community upliftment
At a fixed capital investment it can generate substantial revenues when setup as a hybrid
grid connected system.
In field regions, off-grid setups can meet the demands of agro pumping, water heating
systems etc.
3. National contribution
It is a clean energy.
It will cut down on the existing 20% of power losses in transmission and distribution by
the provision of standalone systems in the rural and isolated areas.
It will reduce the pressure on the environment.
All of the above together will build a sustainable solution
I.
II.
The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride (CdTe),
copper indium gallium Selenide, amorphous silicon and micro-morphous silicon. These
materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics
reducing material mass and therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of
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III.
6. Myth: Solar energy and solar designs work well only in warm, sunny climates
Facts:
Solar technologies can work efficiently and cost-effectively anywhere in India, even in
cloudy communities
Energy-storage systems make solar technologies in less sunny regions practical Some
photovoltaic systems store electricity in batteries so that energy can be retrieved later -even after up to 30 consecutive days without sunlight
7. Myth: Solar electricity cannot serve any significant fraction of Indian electricity
needs.
Facts:
With about 300 clear, sunny days in a year, India's theoretical solar power reception, on
only its land area, is about 5 Petawatt-hours per year (PWh/yr) (i.e. 5 trillion kWh/yr or
about 600 TW). The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7
kWh/m2 with about 15002000 sunshine hours per year (depending upon location),
which is far more than current total energy consumption
Assuming the efficiency of PV modules were as low as 10%, this would still be a
thousand times greater than the domestic electricity demand projected for 2015
8. Myth: To collect enough solar energy a business needs to install large arrays of
collectors requiring vast land area.
Facts:
There is sufficient roof space on most businesses to produce the total electricity needed
using existing photovoltaic technology.
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India is gradually shifting focus towards its solar energy program as the use and
implication of SPV is very low in the country. The Government is striving hard to push
the SPV industry by introducing grid based incentives and concessions in various duties
in the recent budget (2010-11) to make the country as a global leader. Driven by an
increasing demand for electricity, wide gap between demand and supply and pressure to
reduce greenhouse gas emission, India has targeted 22 GW (20 GW grid and 2GW off
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grid tied) of Solar Power by 2022 in its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
(JNNSM). Out of this, around 50 % will be produced through solar photovoltaic (SPV).
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is aiming to achieve 500 MWp gridconnected SPV capacities by 2017. It is estimated that the Indian solar energy sector will
grow at 25% per year in next few years.
ii. Latest steps of Indian Market on the global front are India inaugurated Azure Power's
2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab, the first privately owned, utilityscale power plant on the Asian subcontinent.
Fig 1.15 Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab
Built under a 30-year power purchase agreement with the Punjab State Electricity Board,
the plant will help power 4,000 rural homes for 20,000 people. Farooq Abdullah,
minister of new and renewable energy, said the plant showcases India's pledge to
generate 20,000 megawatts from solar power by 2022 under the country's national solar
mission. An Rs 67-crore, 5 megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed
at village Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan. The project, owned by Indian Oil
Corporation, was commissioned by Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd under the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, as stated by Ministry of Heavy Industries.
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Fig 1.16 A 5-megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed at village
Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan
This power plant is designed to feed power to 33/132 kV grid sub-station at village Bap,
which is situated 18 km from plant site Rawara. It is expected to generate energy of 67
lakh KWh a year. 1.7.2 Cost Effectiveness The decrease in manufacturing costs and
retail prices of PV modules and systems (including electronics and safety devices,
cabling, mounting structures, and installation) have come as the industry has gained
from economies of scale and experience. This has been brought about by extensive
innovation, research, development and ongoing political support for the development of
the PV market. Reductions in prices for materials (such as mounting structures), cables,
land use and installation account for much of the decrease in BOS costs. Another
contributor to the decrease of BOS and installation-related costs is the increase in
efficiency at module level. More efficient modules imply lower costs for balance of
system equipment, installation related costs and land use. Electricity price evolution
Costs for the electricity generated in existing gas and coal-fired power plants are
constantly rising. This is a real driver for the full competitiveness of PV. Energy prices
are increasing in many regions of the world due to the nature of the current energy mix.
The use of finite resources for power generation (such as oil, gas, coal and uranium), in
addition to growing economic and environmental costs will lead to increased price for
energy generated from fossil and nuclear fuels.
1.7.3 External costs of conventional electricity generation
The external costs to society incurred from burning fossil fuels or nuclear power
generation are not currently included in most electricity prices. These costs are both
local and, in the case of climate change, global. As there is uncertainty about the
magnitude of these costs, they are difficult to quantify and include in the electricity
prices. The market price of CO2 certificates remains quite low (around 14/tonne CO2
end of 2010) but is expected to rise in the coming decades.
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Fig. 2.1 An example of a solar water heating system (antifreeze is used so that the liquid
does not freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing)
Solar thermal collectors are as low, medium, or high-temperature collectors.
Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools.
Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water
or air for residential and commercial use. The applications include solar drying and
distillation.
High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are
generally used for electric power production. STE is different from photovoltaic, which
converts solar energy directly into electricity.
2.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic energy
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the
photovoltaic effect. This is explained in more detail in the following sections.
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Fig 2.7(b) A solar cell connected to an ammeter showing a deflection when exposed to
light.
Do it yourself: Get p-n junction silicon semiconductor, connect one end of wire to the ptype and n-type. Now connect an ammeter to the other end and complete the circuit and
place it in sunlight Light consists of packets of energy called photons. When these
photons hit the cell, they are either reflected, absorbed or pass straight through,
depending on their wavelength. The energy from those which are absorbed is given to
the electrons in the material which causes some of them to cross the p-n junction. If an
electrical circuit is made between the two sides of the cell a current will flow. This
current is proportional to the number of photons hitting the cell and therefore the light
intensity.
2.3.2 Solar cell
A solar cell is any device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical energy
through the process of photovoltaic.
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2. Charging process
The Nickel-cadmium battery uses nickel oxide in its positive electrode (cathode), a
cadmium compound in its negative electrode (anode), and potassium hydroxide solution
as its electrolyte. The Nickel Cadmium Battery is rechargeable, so it can cycle
repeatedly. As the battery is discharged, the following reaction takes place:
Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH > 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
2. Charge controller
A solar charge controller is needed in virtually all solar power systems that utilize
batteries. The job of the solar charge controller is to regulate the power going from the
solar panels to the batteries. Overcharging batteries will at the least significantly reduce
battery life and at worst damage the batteries to the point that they are unusable.
3. Inverter
The function of an inverter is to transform the low voltage DC of a lead acid battery into
higher voltage AC which may be used to power standard mains appliances. An inverter
is necessary where appropriate low voltage appliances are unavailable or expensive or in
larger systems where it is necessary to distribute the power over a wide area
The amount of equipment needed depends on what you want the use of the system is. In
the simplest systems, the current power generated by is connected directly to the load.
However, if the energy is required to be store batteries and charge controller are
required. Depending on the needs, balance-of-system equipment could account for half
of the total system costs. The system supplier will be able to tell exactly what equipment
are needed.
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If more electricity is used than the system feeds into the grid during a given month, the
difference between what energy used and produced is to be paid.
The balance of system components required are:
Power conditioning equipment
Safety equipment
Meters and instrumentation.
2.5 Operation
F
lowchart 2.3 operation with AC & DC load
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The solar modules convert solar energy directly into dc power which can be used
directly by dc loads and also by ac loads with the use of an inverter. A battery charges
and discharges according to the requirement of the household or establishment.
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3. System Components
A basic photovoltaic system consists of five main components:
i. solar panel
ii. Batteries
iii. Regulator
iv. Load
v. converter
The panels are responsible for collecting the energy of the sun and generating electricity.
The battery stores the electrical energy for later use. The regulator ensures that panel and
battery are working together in an optimal fashion. The load refers to any device that
requires electrical power, and is the sum of the consumption of all electrical equipment
connected to the system. It is important to remember that solar panels and batteries use
direct current (DC).If the range of operational voltage of your equipment does not fit the
voltage supplied by your battery, it will also be necessary to include some type of
converter. If the equipment that you want to power uses a different DC voltage than the
one supplied by the battery, you will need to use a DC/DC con-verter. If some of your
equipment requires AC power, you will need to use a DC/AC converter, also known as
an inverter. Every electrical system should also incorporate various safety devices in the
event that something goes wrong. These devices include proper wiring, cir-cuit breakers,
surge protectors, fuses, ground rods, lighting arrestors, etc.
III.1
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When all of the components are in balance and are properly maintained, the system will
support itself for years.
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but reduce the maximum voltage of the panel. They should only be used when shading is
unavoidable. It is a much better solution to expose the entire panel to full sun whenever
possible.
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Fig 3.6 : The solar panel parameters and their role in efficiency calculation.
Note:- The panel parameters values change for other conditions of irradiance and
temperature. Manufacturers will sometimes include graphs or tables with values for
conditions different from the standard. You should check the performance values at the
panel temperatures that are likely to match your particular installation. Panel parameters
for system sizing To calculate the number of panels required to cover a given load, you
just need to know the current and voltage at the point of maximum power: IPmax and
VPmax. You should assume a loss of efficiency of 5% in your calculations to
compensate for the inadequacy of the panel to work at the maximum power point at all
the times.
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Interconnection of panels
A solar panel array is a collection of solar panels that are electrically inter-connected and
installed on some type of support structure. Using a solar panel array allows you to
generate greater voltage and current than is possible with a single solar panel. The panels
are interconnected in such a way that the voltage generated is close to (but greater than)
the level of voltage of the batteries, and that the current generated is sufficient to feed
the equipment and to charge the batteries. Connecting solar panels in series increases the
generated voltage. Connecting panels in parallel increases the current. The number of
panels used should be increased until the amount of power generated slightly exceeds
the demands of your load. It is very important that all of the panels in your array are as
identical as possible. In an array, you should use panels of the same brand and
characteristics because any difference in their operating conditions will have a big
impact on the health and performance of your system.
Fig3.7: Interconnection of panels in parallel. The voltage remains constant while the
current duplicates.
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Stationary batteries can use an electrolyte that is alkaline (such as NickelCadmium) or acidic (such as Lead-Acid). Stationary batteries based on NickelCadmium are recommended for their high reliability and resistance whenever
possible. Unfortunately, they tend to be much more expensive and difficult to
obtain than sealed Lead-Acid batteries. Mounting
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Rechargeable Lead Acid Tubular Positive
Plate accelerates, which can cause the same type of oxidation that takes places
during overcharging. This will obviously reduce the life expectancy of battery.
This problem can be compensated partially in car batteries by using a low density
of dissolution (a specific gravity of 1.25 when the battery is totally charged).
As the temperature is reduced, the useful life of the battery increases. But if the
temperature is too low, you run the risk of freezing the electrolyte. The freezing
temperature depends on the density of the solution, which is also related to the
state of charge of the battery. The lower the density, the greater the risk of
freezing. In areas of low temperatures, you should avoid deeply discharging the
batteries (that is, DoDmax is effectively reduced.)
The temperature also changes the relation between voltage and charge. It is
preferable to use a regulator which adjusts the low voltage disconnect and
reconnect parameters according to temperature. The temperature sensor of the
regulator should be fixed to the battery using tape or some other simple method.
In hot areas it is important to keep the batteries as cool as possible. The batteries
must be stored in a shaded area and never get direct sunlight. It's also desirable to
place the batteries on a small support to allow air to flow under them, thus
increase the cooling.
low reconnect voltage (LRV). The most modern regulators are also able to automatically
disconnect the panels during the night to avoid discharging of the battery. They can also
periodically overcharge the battery to improve their life, and they may use a mechanism
known as pulse width modulation (PWM) to prevent excessive gassing.
As the peak power operating point of the array of panels will vary with
temperature and solar illumination, new regulators are capable of constantly
tracking the maximum point of power of the solar array. This feature is known as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Circuit implementation
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3.5 Converters
The regulator provides DC power at a specific voltage. Converters and inverters are used
to adjust the voltage to match the requirements of your load.
3.5.1 DC/DC Converters
DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous voltage
of a different value. There are two conversion methods which can be used to adapt
the voltage from the batteries: linear conversion and switching conversion.
Linear conversion lowers the voltage from the batteries by converting excess
energy to heat. This method is very simple but is obviously inefficient.
Switching conversion generally uses a magnetic component to temporarily store
the energy and transform it to another voltage. The resulting voltage can be
greater, less than, or the inverse (negative) of the input voltage.
The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases as the difference between the input
voltage and the output voltage increases. For example, if we want to convert from
12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only 50%. A standard
switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.
3.5.2 DC/AC Converter or Inverter
Basic Principle: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries,
solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage;
in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation.
THE GENERAL CASE
Inverters are used when your equipment requires AC power. Inverters chop and invert
the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered to approximate a sine wave
and eliminate undesired harmonics. Very few inverters actually supply a pure sine wave
as output. Most models available on the market produce what is known as "modified
sine wave", as their voltage output is not a pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency,
modified sine wave inverters perform better than pure sinusoidal inverters. A
transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same
frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage,
AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output
power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small
proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.
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Circuit description
Fig 3.12: A realization of the inverter with a transformer with a movable switch and a
current source.
Auto-switching device implemented with two transistors and split winding auto
transformer in place of the mechanical switch.
OUTPUT
Fig 3.13 : The output achieved from the inverter with the subsequent harmonics.
Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th
harmonic. In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer
through the centre tap of the primary winding.. A switch is rapidly switched back and
forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths
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through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the
direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating
current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the switching
device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The
spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an
electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current
in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch
continually switches rapidly back and forth.
Circuit Implementation
Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that transforms
energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or butane as alternative.
Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but you should avoid the
use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.
If you must use a refrigerator, it should consume as little power as possible. There
are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their consumption can be
quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).
3.7 Power Conditioning Unit
During day time when the solar power is available, the charge controller charges
the battery by transferring as much as solar current to battery as required. During
this time the battery voltage is monitored continuously. When in the night time,
the solar energy is not available the system enables the battery to deliver the
current through inverter to meet the demand for powering the street lights.
The microprocessor controlled inverter incorporates Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) technology and incorporates all the desired safety features.
Important features/protections in the PCU:
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3.9 Wiring
An important component of the installation is the wiring, as proper wiring will
ensure efficient energy transfer.
Issues specific to solar power relate to the fact that all installations are of the
outdoor type, and as a result all system components, including the PV panel,
support structures, wiring, raceways, junction boxes, collector boxes, and
inverters must be selected and designed to withstand harsh atmospheric conditions
and must operate under extreme temperatures, humidity, and wind turbulence and
gust conditions.
Specifically, the electrical wiring must withstand, in addition to the preceding
environmental adversities, degradation under constant exposure to ultraviolet
radiation and heat. Factors to be taken into consideration when designing solar
power wiring include the PV modules short-circuit current (Isc) value, which
represents the maximum module output when output leads are shorted.
For the electrical installation of a photovoltaic system, a distinction is made
between module or string cables, the DC main cable and the AC connection cable.
The electrical connecting cables between the individual modules of a solar
generator and to the generator junction box are termed 'module cables' or 'string
cables'. These cables are generally used outdoors. In order to ensure earth fault
and short-circuit proof cable laying, the positive and the negative poles may not
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be laid together in the same cable. Single-wire cables with double insulation have
proven to be a practicable solution and offer high reliability.
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Table 3.1: The BoS items / components with BIS Standards specifications
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Fig 3.21: Stand-alone hybrid solar power system with standby generator.
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Figure 3.22 : Grid-connected hybrid solar power system with standby generator.
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Net meters are supplied and installed by utility companies that provide grid-connection
service systems. Net metered solar power co-generators are subject to specific
contractual agreements and are subsidized by state and municipal governmental
agencies. When designing net metering solar power cogeneration systems, the solar
power designers and their clients must familiarize themselves with the rebate fund
requirements. Essential to any solar power implementation is the preliminary design and
economic feasibility study needed for project cost justification and return on investment
analysis.
Grid-connection isolation transformer In order to prevent spurious noise transfer from
the grid to the solar power system electronics, a delta-y isolation transformer is placed
between the main service switchgear disconnects and the inverters. The delta winding of
the isolation transformer, which is connected to the service bus, circulates noise
harmonics in the winding and dissipates the energy as heat. Isolation transformers are
also used to convert or match the inverter output voltages to the grid. Most often, in
commercial installations, inverter output voltages range from 208 to 230 V (three phase),
which must be connected to an electric service grid that supplies 277/480 V power.
Some inverter manufacturers incorporate output isolation transformers as an integral part
of the inverter system, which eliminates the use of external transformation and ensures
noise isolation.
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4 DESIGN
Design of a solar PV system is the process of estimation of load, sizing of the batteries
and sizing of the solar modules that are used in the PV system.
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Fig 4.1 Indias first two megawatt grid connected project, commissioned in the state of
West Bengal in east India.
Source: pv-magazine.com
Some of the basic Principles to Follow When Designing a Quality PV System
i. A packaged system should be selected that meets the owner's needs. Customer criteria
for a system may include reduction in monthly electricity bill, environmental benefits,
desire for backup power, initial budget constraints, etc. The PV array should be sized
and oriented to provide the expected electrical power and energy.
ii. It should be ensured that the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling
the desired system size.
iii. Sunlight and weather resistant materials for all outdoor equipment should be
specified.
iv. Array should be located to minimize shading from foliage, vent pipes, and adjacent
structures.
v. System should be designed in compliance with all applicable building and electrical
codes.
vi. The system should be designed with a minimum of electrical losses due to wiring,
fuses, switches, and inverters.
vii. The battery system should be properly housed and managed, should batteries be
required.
viii. It should be ensured that the design meets local utility interconnection requirements.
PV systems are designed and sized to meet a given load requirement. PV system sizing
and design involves:
1. PV system design involves a decision on which configuration is to be adopted to meet
the load requirement as explained above.
2. Once the system configuration is decided the size or capacity of the various
components is determined.
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A PV system design and sizing process passes through the following two stages
depending on the level of details used in components sizing:
1. Approximate design
2. Precise design
In the approximate design, several simplifying assumptions are made with respect to the
component performance (without referring to the actual data sheets), solar radiation data,
seasonal variation in the load performance variation of PV panel with season, etc. In the
precise design, however, attention is given to accurate details of all the above factors.
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v. If one must use a refrigerator, it should consume as little power as possible. There are
specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their consumption can be quite high
(around 1000 Wh/day).
The estimation of total consumption is a fundamental step in sizing the solar system.
Here is a table that gives a general idea of the power consumption that one can expect
from different appliances.
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Flowchart 4.1 SCHEMA A Illustration and Flowchart for Design of Habitat PV System
Part A of the flowchart refers to load estimation, part B refers to sizing of batter and part
C refers to sizing of PV modules. These processes are explained in detail in the
following topics.
4.5Design process
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Separate tables can be made for AC and DC loads. But when the calculation is done the
both total energy of both theloads is to be considered. In this example however we have
considered a house with only AC loads. It is important to keep in mind that the system
should be designed for the worst case scenario, energy required changes from day to day
and season to season basis. The system should meet the peak energy requirement or the
peak load demand i.e. the highest requirement in a particular day of the year. However a
reliable system design will add to the cost of the system. Thus a balance has to be struck
between reliability and cost.
4.5.1 Inverter rating
As explained in the previous chapter an inverter supplies power to AC loads and
converter supplies power to DC loads. The inverter and converter should be capable of
handling input current from the battery and output current to the load. In the example
since there are only AC loads only inverters are used. Generally, input voltage varies
from 12 - 72V and current from 1 10s of Amperes. The output is fixed at 220V 60Hz.
In this step the inverter rating is calculated. For this:
The sum of all the loads connected to the inverter is taken
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Fig 4.3Series and parallel connection of batteries to supply the required energy to the
load considering 2 days autonomy
4.5.7 Daily energy generated by panels
The parameters of concern for the PV module sizing are:
Voltage, current and wattage of the module;
Solar radiation at a given location and at given time;
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Fig 4.4 Series and parallel connection of PV modules with their ratings that are
required to supply the energy to the load.
This completes the design of the PV systemof a solar PV system wherein the load
consists of a CFL, TV, fan, and refrigerator and computer.
Fig 4.5Complete design of solar PV system to fulfil the required load as described in
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theexample
should be fitted in a shadow free area such that sunlight falls on the panel all day long.
Preferably the roof should be a RCC permanent structure with strength of more than 150
Kg/m2. Approximately 1Kilo watt system requires a shadow free area of nearly 15 m2
i.e., 150 Square Feet.
b. Orientation
Orientation of panels/array depends on your latitude and where the house or
establishment is. If it's in the northern hemisphere, it faces south, with a tilt direction at
the sun with respect to the average tilt of the earth. To capture the maximum amount of
solar radiation over a year, the solar array should be tilted at an angle approximately
equal to a site's latitude, and facing within 15 of due south. To optimize winter
performance, the solar array can be tilted 15 more than the latitude angle, and to
optimize summer performance, 15 less than the latitude angle. At any given instant, the
array will output maximum available power when pointed directly at the sun. To get the
most from solar panels, it has to be pointed in the direction that captures the most sun.
Solar panels should always face south, since India is located in the northern hemisphere.
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c. Obstacle handling
Panels location should be such that it is away from the shadow zone of the obstacle
(three times the height if obstacle is in east and the one time height of obstacle if
obstacle is in south) from the panel level.
d. Temperature
In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open
circuit voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.
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The above flowchart 5.1 gives an overview of the entire process of installation of solar
panels to be borne in mind by the user for a well implemented installation.
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5. INSTALLATION
Before the commencement of the installation it is important to get familiarized with the
manufacturers instructions supplied with each of the components. The site visit will
allow identification of mounting positions for each item. It is helpful to draw a wiring
diagram before starting the installation. The installation has no correct order for of the
various system components, except for the eventual connection and commissioning.
5.1 Safety
At all times during the installation, the safety of the installers and public must be
paramount. The public should be kept away from the installation site at all times, by the
use of barriers or fencing where necessary. Particular attention should be paid to the
safety of children.
5.1.1 Electrical
Although Solar power systems are generally low voltage, but the wiring regulations for
the country of installation should always be observed. The following should be kept in
mind:
Inverter output is mains voltage AC and can be lethal. It should be treated as any
other mains supply.
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Solar arrays generate electricity when exposed to the sun, whether connected to
control equipment or not. The solar array output cables should be treated as live
and solar array should be covered when connections are being made.
The open circuit voltage of a solar array is significantly greater than the system
voltage. For example a 48 Volt array can have an open circuit voltage of nearly 90
Volts, can be lethal to children, the elderly or anyone with a heart condition.
Batteries can produce currents of hundreds or even thousands of amps giving rise
to the risk of fire. Great care should be taken to protect the battery terminals from
shorting by tools and all jewellery should be removed. If in any doubt about your
abilities, or if required by local regulations, then a qualified electrician must be
employed.
5.1.2 Chemical
Lead acid batteries contain dilute sulphuric acid and liberate hydrogen when charging.
The following precautions should be observed:
1. Great care should be taken when filling batteries with electrolyte; suitable protective
clothing should be worn including eye protection and it should be carried out in a well
ventilated area, preferably outdoors.
2. Great care should be taken to prevent arcing near battery terminals as explosion may
result.
5.1.3 Handling
Batteries and solar arrays present certain hazards in handling as follows:
1. Lead acid batteries are extremely heavy. Appropriate lifting gear should be used.
2. Most solar panels are made from glass and should be treated as fragile.
3. Installation of solar arrays may involve working at height .All necessary precautions
must be observed and the services of a qualified rigger or roofer should be employed if
necessary.
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CAUTION
i. One should never step or sit on the glass surface of a solar module. The glass may
break, resulting in shock or bodily injury. The module may also stop generating power.
ii. The supplied parts should always be used to attach the solar modules and mounts. Use
of weaker parts, such as screws that are too short, is dangerous and may cause the solar
modules or mounts to fall.
iii. The specified tools should only be used. The solar modules or mounts may fall if the
installation is not strong enough, for example when parts are not tightened sufficiently.
iv. Regardless of whether one is working on a new or existing roof, the sheathing should
never be allowed to become wet. The sheathing should be protected from rain during the
installation. Failure to do so may cause leaks.
v. Only the specified materials should be used. Use of other materials is dangerous.
Materials other than specified can reduce performance and can cause leaks, shock, and
so on.
vi. Parts should not be cut or modified.
vii. Protective earth grounding of the individual photovoltaic modules should be
achieved by securing the modules to the mounting frames. The assembly instructions
should be closely followed, in order to ensure a reliable ground connection.
Artificially concentrated sunlight shall not be directed on the module.
Wiring methods should be in accordance with the NEC.
Wires and cables should be installed with appropriate hardware in accordance
with applicable electrical codes.
The framing system shall be grounded in accordance with NEC.
All of the Rails in an installation shall be provided with protective earth bonding
wires when installed.
Systems should not be located near coastal locations or other saltwater locations.
Minimum distance is 0.3 miles from the body of water.
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PV MODULES
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1. Solar modules should be installed facing south, if possible. Installations facing east
and west are also possible, although the amount of power generated will be lower. The
roof should be checked from a southern orientation, and checked for obstacles that will
cast a shadow. Since these factors lower the amount of power generated.
2. Installation should be done in a location that has good sun exposure throughout the
year. Less power is generated in shaded locations.
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3. Installation is not possible in regions where the wind pressure exceeds 45 PSF. It
should be checked with the local building department to determine if this mounting
system is in compliance. Installation is not possible when the roof angle is less than 10
degrees or greater than 45 degrees.
4. The output of a series string of solar modules is connected to the input of the inverter.
Solar modules should always be installed so that all elements of the array receive the
same amount of sunlight. The amount of power generated declines dramatically if the
solar modules are connected receiving different amounts of light in a string array, for
example, solar modules facing east and solar modules facing south should not be
connected in the same string.
5. It may not be possible to install solar modules in the following areas and under the
said conditions. Regions with heavy snowfall - Installation is not possible in regions
where snow accumulate
6. Ion exceeds the maximum allowable load. The building department should be
contacted for more information about maximum snow accumulation.
Configuration
A typical Solar Photo Voltaic Power Plant comprises PV Array, Solar deep cycle battery
and Power Conditioning Unit (PCU). PCU comprises a charge controller, an inverter for
conversion from DC into AC and a complete set of installation hardware.
Fig
5.2 A schematic diagram of the proposed system.
The modules have been fixed on corrosion resistant MS Structure. The SPV module has
crystalline silicon solar cells connected in series and hermetically sealed with high
transmission toughened glass on top and suitable lamination material on back using
state-of-the-art technology. The laminates are framed using anodised aluminium
Channels. A terminal block is fixed on the frames for taking the electrical output. The
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Once it is ascertained that the solar array is correctly assembled it is time to lift it into
place and secure it. Usually there are a number of rails to be mounted to the roof or
foundations first. It should be ensured that these are orientated correctly so that the solar
array will point towards the equator once mounted; that is towards the south in the
northern hemisphere and towards the north in the southern hemisphere.
Often the best method is to place two ladders parallel to each other and walk up them
with the solar array in between. The solar array should be carefully lifted into position
on the mounting rails and assembled using the correct nuts and bolts. If the mounting
structure is adjustable for tilt, now is the time to set it. The solar array should be
supported whilst making any adjustments and set the tilt based on the latitude of the
location as follows:
Optimized for winter, e.g. lighting systems in temperate zones: Angle of latitude
+15 from the horizontal.
Optimized for summer, e.g. holiday homes: Angle of latitude -15 from the
horizontal.
All year round performance, e.g. medical systems in the tropics: Angle from the
horizontal equal to angle of latitude.
The tilt should not be set less than 10 from the horizontal whatever the latitude, as a tilt
of less than this will allow dirt to build up on the solar array which will reduce its
performance.
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5.2.1 Assembly
Before fixing to the roof or ground the solar panels must be mounted to the support rails
to create a single unit. In larger systems the solar array may be split into sub-arrays.
Each of these is treated as a separate solar array. If a proprietary support structure is used
then the correct nuts and bolts will be supplied. Otherwise use high-tensile nuts and
bolts the correct size for the mounting holes in the solar panels, and ensure that either
locking washers or self-locking nuts are used to prevent loosening as a result of
vibration due to the wind.
The solar panels should be laid face down in the correct alignment. It should be ensured
that the ground is flat; a grassed area is ideal. A blanket should be placed or similar on
the ground to avoid any damage to the glass. The mounting rails should be bolted to the
solar panels, taking care to ensure that no strain is placed upon the solar panels. Weight
should not be put on the solar panels themselves.
5.2.2 Connection
It is usually easiest to connect the individual solar panels together and connect the long
output cable to them before putting them into position, especially if they are to be roof
mounted. Connect all the solar panels together first; either in one, two, or four groups
depending on the system voltage and then connect the output cable. Check that all
connections are sound before replacing the terminal box covers as this is hopefully the
last time you will see them.
A solar module structure is of two types:
a) Stand-alone
b) Grid tied
The structure has 8 parts, two horizontal, two vertical and four legs.
There are two kinds of nuts used for the structure build up.
The nuts are of M6 and M16 type.
M6 is used for module mounting
M16 is used for mounting structures and is Stainless Steel hardware.
The vertical legs are classified as small and long. A difference is maintained in their
heights to get desired inclination of the mounting structure.
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M16 type of Nut used for mounting structure Entire structure used for mounting. These
individual parts are assembled with the help of nuts.
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Pliers and spanners are used for fixing and tightening the nuts. Spanners used for this
purpose are of 10-11 and 18-19 dimensions.
Fixing of nuts (M16) for fixing the structure. Tightening of nuts using spanner (18-19
dimension).
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The second vertical leg is fixed. Placement of vertical and horizontal sections for
modules to rest on.
The vertical legs should now be fixed and bolts should be tightened.
The above structure is inverted. All the bolts of the entire assembly structure should be
properly tightened.
This is how the structure should look, with the long legs placed on one side and the short
ones on the other side to provide an inclination for the placement of solar modules at a
particular angle for maximized output.
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Pedestals are Reinforced Cement Concrete structures and should be built on the
ground/roof where the structure has to be mounted. This is an important step for
providing a firm base to the modules.
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The solar modules are now mounted on the structure one by one.
Open the junction box of the module and connect the module cable with correct polarity.
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Close the junction box and tie the module cable on the module frame.
To connect the modules in series, the positive of one module is connected to the negative
of the adjacent module and so on.
The first and the last module are left with two free ends of +ve & - ve outputs which are
then connected to the charge converter.
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RFID is pasted behind every solar module. This signifies the characteristics of every
panel like the current, voltage etc.
Fix the base plate to the wall. For fixing the product in wall marks & makes 4 hole of
drill size 6.5mm
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On the base plate, where the PCB is mounted, labels for connections are marked.
Connections are to be done according to the labels. Before the terminal fixing, grommets
are to be inserted to the cables.
Place the Top cover on the base plate and fix with screws and put the screw caps
supplied along with.
5.3 Battery
Installation of the battery may be as simple as taking a wet-charged or sealed battery out
of a box and placing it on a firm and level surface. Alternatively it may involve mixing
acid to the right concentration and filling the batteries on site.
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5.3.1 Site
The batteries need to be mounted such that they are secure, i.e. they cant fall over, they
are protected from unauthorized access and away from sources of ignition. The room or
container that they are in should be ventilated so as to allow the hydrogen produced by
charging to escape. This applies even to sealed batteries as they are able to vent excess
gasses should the charging system malfunction.
Practically this is most likely to mean one of two things:
On a solid floor or racking within a locked and well ventilated room.
In a purpose designed battery box.
It is important that it is possible to gain access to the batteries in order to perform
maintenance. In the case of a sealed battery this means the terminals, but for a vented
battery it may mean access to the level markings on the side and the filling caps.
Connection
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Once the battery has been put in place, the individual batteries or cells can be connected
together to form a single battery. If possible battery interconnect cables supplied by the
battery manufacturer or supplier should be used; and if it has to be made then the
thickest cable that is practical should be used. Great care should be taken when
connecting the batteries. All metal jewellery should be removed before starting.
Insulated tools should be used where available. Output cables should not be connected at
this point.
5.3.4 Earthing
Provision should be made to earth the battery negative terminal. If no suitable earth is
available, then an earth rod must be driven into the ground outside as near as possible to
the battery. This is connected to the battery negative terminal via green and yellow earth
cable of at least 2.5 mm2 and preferably 6 mm2 cross sectional areas.
a. Control equipment
POWER CONDITIONING UNIT
The single phase Power conditioning unit (PCU) provides single phase AC power to the
specific loads with an objective to reduce the dependency on conventional power as well
as to minimize the consumption of fossil fuel (e.g. Diesel) in the event of power failures.
The power conditioning unit mainly comprises of MPPT based, PWM solar charge
controller, and a single phase bi-directional inverter. The MPPT charger is
microprocessor based system IS designed to provide the necessary DC/AC conversion to
maximize the power from the SPV array to charge the battery bank. The charge
controller is equipped with necessary software that allows precise charging of the battery
bank .Many protection features are also included to ensure that no abnormal or out of
range charge conditions are encountered by the battery bank. The system incorporates a
front panel display to indicate the operational status and fault status of the system,
reset system faults and implement various operating modes. The high efficiency inverter
converts the DC power available from the Array/Battery into single phase AC, by
incorporating IGBT devices for power conversion. When AC mains is available, the
inverter control system uses the internal set point to monitor the condition of the AC
source to determine if the quality of AC mains is suitable for being to the load. If the AC
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quality is found to be within specified limits, it is connected to the load. In the event of
power failure and the solar power is available ,the control attempts to maintain zero
current from the battery, thus transferring as much as possible solar current to the load.
During this time the battery voltage is monitored continuously. When the solar energy is
not available (due to insufficient sunlight) the system enables the battery to deliver the
current through inverter to meet the demand. The microprocessor controlled inverter
incorporates Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technology and incorporates all the
desired safety features (please refer data sheet).
Important features/protections in the PCU:
MPPT included.
LCD keypad operator interface menu driven.
Automatic fault conditions reset for all parameters like voltage, frequency and/or
black out.
MOV type surge arrestors on AC & DC terminals for over voltage protection from
lightening induced surges.
PCU operation from 5C to 55 C
All parameters shall be accessible through an industry standard communication
link.
Over load capacity (for 30 sec) shall be 150% of continuous rating.
Since the PCU is to be used in solar photovoltaic energy system, it shall have high
operational efficiency. The idling current at no load shall not exceed two percent of the
full load current. In PCU, there shall be a direct current isolation provided at the output
by means of a suitable isolating transformer. Internal faults: Inbuilt protection for
internal faults including excess temperature, commutation failure, and overload and
cooling fan failure (if fitted) is obligatory. Galvanic Isolation: Galvanic isolation is
required to avoid any DC component being injected into the grid and the potential for
AC components appearing at the array. Over voltage protection: Over voltage against
atmospheric lightening discharge to the PV array is provided.
A. Earth Fault Supervision: An integrated earth fault shall be provided to detect eventual
earth fault on DC side and shall send message to the supervisory system.
B. Cabling Practice: Cable connections shall be made using PVC Cu cables, as per BIS
standards. All cable connections shall be made using suitable terminations for effective
contact.
All doors, covers, panels, and cable exits shall be jacketed or otherwise designed to limit
the entry of dust and moisture. In the design and fabrication of the PCU the site
temperature 5 C to 50 C, incident sunlight and the effect of ambient temperature on
component life have been considered carefully. Similar consideration has been given to
the heat sinking and thermal for blocking diodes and similar components.
INVERTER CONNECTIONS:
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i. Connecting two panels (or similar groups of panels) in series will double the voltage,
but keeps the current the same. Wiring two panels (or similar groups of panels) in
parallel keeps the voltage the same but doubles the current. Figure out the voltages for
the panels and batteries so that they match before buying anything. Also make sure that
the ratings for the charge controller and the inverter match the voltages for the panel
array and the battery bank before buying anything.
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ii. Connecting two batteries (or similar banks of batteries) in series (the positive terminal
of one to the negative terminal of the other) will double the voltage while keeping the
current the same. Connecting two batteries (or similar banks of batteries) in parallel
(both positive terminals connected together and both negative terminals connected
together) will keep the voltage the same while doubling the current.
iii. It is important that the voltage ratings to all four major components (solar panels,
current controller, batteries and inverter) match. The panels and batteries can be wired in
combinations that bring the total networks up to the required voltages--the networks
need not be mirror images of each other as long as the totals match.
5.4.2 Wiring
The wiring may now be put in place, following the diagram and cable sizes. Great care
should be taken to observe the correct polarity, and ensure that all connections are well
tightened. The cables should be securely clipped to the wall where it is possible to keep
them out of harm and make them look neat. Any of the final positive connections to
battery, solar array or load should not be made at this stage. All wiring must be installed
in conformity with local electrical regulations, by a qualified electrician where
necessary.
5.5 System Commissioning
System commissioning is the process of checking and testing the installation and putting
it into service. It may be tempting to hurry this procedure; time may be running short
and the user may be impatient to see the system working. However, the future reliability
of the entire system depends on careful commissioning. If the equipment you are using
has any specific commissioning instructions then follow those in preference to the
instructions below.
5.5.1 Visual check
With the help of the wiring diagram the system should be carefully examined to ensure
that everything is as it should be. Particular attention should be paid to the polarity of
connections and the battery earth.
5.5.2 Connections
The security of all the connections to the control gear and any other connections that
have been made already, such as the battery negative and earth connections should be
checked.
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* It is wise to turn the panel away from the sun to measure the current as the panel is live
when the sun is shining on its face. Connecting to the live junctions when testing the
current can cause sparking.
** It's not unheard of to get a slightly higher reading than the current rating listed on the
panel, so you want to see at least a matching number. If both the voltage and amperage
test properly, then its a good panel and will serve well.
if fitted. Since a spark is likely to occur, ensure that the room is well ventilated
and the battery caps should be blown across first to clear any hydrogen if the
battery is of the vented type.
Beware of newer glass panels that have cracks or condensation under the glass.
The conductivity is likely compromised, meaning you can probably leave your
multimeter in your pocket.
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6 APPLICATION AREAS
6.1 HABITAT APPLICATIONS
Salient Features
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CEL's Solar Domestic Lighting Systems are easy to install and requires minimal
maintenance. CEL can supply Customized System also.
CEL's Solar Street Lighting System provides Bright Light during night. The system
completely Noiseless, Smoke-free and Free from Fire Hazards. This is a stand-alone
lighting system consisting of Lamp Assembly (with control electronics) with one
Compact Florescent Lamp (CFL) of 11 Watt, a Storage Battery charged by the SPV
Modules and provides lighting during night hours. It works automatically from Dusk to
Dawn.
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CEL's Solar Street Lighting Systems are easy to install and requires minimal
maintenance. CEL can supply Solar Street Lighting System with SPX Lamp or as per
choice of customer.
CEL's Solar Photovoltaic Water pumping system is modular, flexible and is available in
two types i.e. Shallow well type and Deep well type. They are ideally suitable for those
areas where conventional grid supply is either erratic or nonexistent. CEL's Solar Water
Pumping System requires minimal maintenance. These systems don't require batteries.
DC power generated by Solar Modules is directly fed to the pump.
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Water Output
The system would deliver 1,30,000 liters per day at 10m total dynamic head on a clear
sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel when solar radiation on horizontal
surface is : 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.
Water Output:
The system would deliver 30,000 litres per day at 30m total head and 12,000 litres per
day at 70m total head on a clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel when
solar radiation on horizontal surface is: 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.
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Water Output:
The system would deliver 42,000 liters per day at 30m total head and 19,000 litres per
day at 70m total head on a clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel when
solar radiation on horizontal surface is: 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.
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Offshore platforms that pump oil and gas under the sea are unmanned and need to be
remotely monitored. It becomes vital then, for the power system to be highly reliable,
long lasting, well-engineered and capable of operating in a vast spread of conditions.
The ONGC module is a pioneering intrinsically safe double glass module developed
specifically for operation in explosion prone environments, such as on the offshore, oil
production platforms of ONGC. These are the 1st modules in the world to be certified
with Gr.I, Gr.IIA and Gr.IIB by Central Mining Research Station (CMRS), Dhanbad and
accepter by international insurers, Lloyds of U.K.
The solar power generation system used on the ONGC wellhead offshore platforms
powers telemetry, gas detection, lighting and navigational aid systems.
The system comprises of
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The obstruction light is a system of red lights used to show the presence of manmade or
natural objects that are dangerous to airway path. These obstruction lights are now days
made from LED, Xenon Lamps, Neon Lamps, Incandescent lamps etc. Obstruction
lights shall be located as close as practicable to the top of the object. Obstruction lights
are installed on all obstructions that present a threat to air traffic, cautioning pilots of the
presence of an obstruction during hours of darkness and during periods of limited
daytime visibility. The use of solar energy to illuminate the Obstruction Lights during
day time will be more economical and viable also environment friendly and save
electricity.
6.2.4 Railway signalling (Supplementary Power)
The efficient running and control of railway traffic, one of the largest means of
transportation in the country is seriously hampered by irregular grid supply, often
resulting in traffic congestion and great inconvenience to public and adversely affecting
the operating cost. The alternative method of supplementing grid supply by the use of
Diesel Generator sets pose considerable logistic problems. It has a high maintenance
cost, necessitating use of additional DG Sets as stand-by. Diesel oil has to be transported
to the far-flung location at prohibitive cost. Diesel oil is further prone to pilferage. Thus
this alternative becomes extremely costly, apart from disadvantage of atmospheric
pollution. As a result of decade of research and field experience CEL now brings the
source of power Solar PV power source by harnessing the Solar Energy abundantly
available and non-polluting by nature. CEL SPV power system comprising of the Solar
Photovoltaic arrays, storage batteries and control electronics now offers the best
alternative power source for panel station of Indian Railways.
A typical SPV power source for Panel Stations for Railways consists of:
A Solar Photovoltaic Array.
A Battery Bank.
An Electronic Control Unit and Panel.
6.2.5 Telecom towers
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As many as 400 telecom towers are to be powered by solar panels that will sit on them,
reflecting light from the sun to produce electricity that will be used by the towers. The
towers are part of a Rs 120 crore project under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM) of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. The 400 projects
include 100 each for telecom operators Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. (BSNL, New Delhi,
India), Bharti Airtel Ltd. (New Delhi, India), Indus and GTL Ltd. (Navi Mumbai, India).
The towers are located in multiple Indian states, with GTL's 100 tower PV projects in
Uttar Pradesh, Indus' 100 systems in Andra Pradesh, and Airtel's 100 systems in Bihar.
Multiple economic analyses have indicated that PV systems are far more costeffective
over time for supporting telecom applications in off-grid areas than diesel generation,
even before the inherent uncertainty in fuel costs is factored in. Thus CEL being one of
the largest manufacturers of solar cells in India, telecom towers will be considered as
one of the markets for using solar PV as an industrial application.
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The Solar Charger consists of a pair of foldable solar photovoltaic (SPV) panels. Each
panel is of 24 W capacity and capable of charging a 12 V battery. The two panels can be
connected in series or parallel for charging 24V/18V or 12V battery systems as required.
The charger is provided with a support stand for the SPV panel, an Indication Unit
having a current meter and requisite connectors; all capable of being assembled and
packed in a water-proof carrying harness. Indication Unit helps the user to correctly
orient the SPV panel for capture of maximum sun insulation and also know the charging
current.
Features
Lightweight
Foldable & easy to carry
Ideal for remote locations
Easy to assemble & operate
No moving parts & no noise
Maintenance free
These electrical parameters are measured at standard test conditions (ASTHC ) of 100
mW/Sq.cm cell temperature of 25C and Air Mass of 1.5. Weight of Solar charger with
all accessories
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Environmental
Specifications subject to change without prior notice due to continuous in-house
improvement. Measurement accuracy within +5%
CEL's Lightweight Foldable Solar Charger is suitable for charging 12V Lead Acid and
Nickel Cadmium batteries for Manpack Wireless Communication Equipment. This Solar
Charger is specially designed to meet Joint Service Specifications 55555 as per Table
L.3 and is ideal for charging batteries at difficult and inaccessible areas to temperature
varying between 30Cto + 65C.
Features
135
The Lightweight Solar Charger has been designed for use by the Army and Paramilitary Forces for charging rechargeable lead-acid and Nickel- Cadmium
batteries used in low power manpack communication sets.
The Solar Charger totally eliminates the carriage of back-up batteries and/or
heavy manually operated generating set (with fuel) that normally form part of a
manpack radio detachment thereby reducing at least one man-load. It is hence
most suitable for soldiers operating in high altitudes, remote and inaccessible
areas and for long range patrols.
The Solar Charger consists of a pair of modules (each module having 16 single
crystalline solar cells, connected in series) with integral indication unit and a
support stake. The modules are again connected in series to charge a 12 V
battery .Indication Unit helps the user to correctly orient the SPV panel for
capture of maximum sun insulation and also to know the charging current. It
consists of a current meter and pair of terminals for connecting the battery to be
charged.
A Schottky diode has been provided as blocking diode (to avoid reverse flow of
current).
Support Stake has been provided on the back side of the charger to keep the
charger at an angle for getting maximum sun insulation.
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Environmental
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