Heat Engines Vol
Heat Engines Vol
Heat Engines Vol
TESTING OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
7.1 Objectives of Testing
In general, the purposes of testing an internal combustion engine are :
(i) to obtain information about the engine which cannot be determined by calculations,
(ii) to confirm data used in design, the validity of which is in doubt, and
(iii) to satisfy the customer as to the rated power output with the guaranteed fuel
consumption.
The majority of tests on internal combustion engines are carried out for commercial
purposes in order to check the following :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
rated power (brake power) with the guaranteed fuel consumption (kg/kW-hr.),
the quantity of lubricating oil required on brake power basis per kW-hr.,
the quantity of cooling water required on brake power basis in kg per kW-hr.,
the steadiness of the engine when loaded at different loads, and
the overload carrying capacity of the engine.
;j
j
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
171
172
The method o f finding indicated power o f one cylinder o f a multi-cylinder I.C. engine
without the use o f a high speed indicator is known as the Morse test. The engine is
first run under the required condition of load, speed, temperature, etc., and the brake
power is measured accurately. Each cylinder is then cut-out in turn; the brake load being
rapidly adjusted in each case to bring the engine speed back to the specified value at
the given angle of advance and throttle settling.
The fundamental assumptions are that the friction and pumping power of the cut-out
cylinder remains the same after cutting out as they were when the cylinder was fully
operative (developing power). This would not be a correct assumption if it were not for
the fact that it is possible to carry this test in a very short span of time. It should only
take a few seconds to cut out one cylinder and adjust the brake load to keep the speed
constant. Over this short period the assumption may be considered reasonable. After
cutting out one cylinder, the engine should be allowed to run on all cylinders fora short
while, before cutting out the next cylinder.
Suppose we have a four-cylinder petrol engine loaded with a hydraulic brake
(dynamometer) to measure its brake power. At any given speed with all the four cylinders
firing (developing power), the brake power should be accurately measured, Then,
Indicated power 4 cylinders = Brake power 4 cylinders + Friction power 4 cylinders
(i)
If one cylinder is cut out (spark plug lead is shorted) so that it develops no power,
the engine speed will fall. The brake load should then bereduced so thatthe engine
speed increases again to the original given speed. The engineis nowdeveloping power
in three cylinders, whereas the friction power of all the four cylinders remains the same
as already discussed.
Then, the brake power should be measured with the decreased load, i.e., with three
cylinders developing power.
Then, l.P. 3 cylinders = B.P. 3 cylinders + F.P.
Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get,
cylinders
()
173
174
calibrated by the makers. The warmer the gases, the greater will be the e.m.f. ( milli-volts)
and the pyrometer dial will read higher temperature.
Mass o f exhaust gases : The mass of exhaust gases may be calculated from the
measured air consumption by air-box orifice method or by air flow meter in a given time
and the fuel consumption in the same time.
Air-fuel ratio -
Mass of exhaust gases per minute = Air consumption per min. + Fuel consumption
per min.
It is also possible to estimate the air-fuel ratio and the mass of exhaust gases per
kg of fuel from the volumetric analysis of exhaust gases by Orsat apparatus and the
ultimate analysis of fuel on mass basis.
Mass of air supplied per kg of
fuel or air-fuel ratio
N x C
33 (C, x q>)
= m kg ( say )
where, N, C1 and C2 are percentages of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
by volume in exhaust gases and C is percentage of carbon in fuel on mass basis.
Mass of exhaust gases per kgof fuel = (. m + 1 ) kg.
Mass of exhaust gases per minute (mg) = (m + 1 ) x mass of fuelper min. in
kg.
Mean specific heat of exhaust gases : The mean specific heat of exhaust products
(gases) can be calculated from the knowledge of the constituent products, by allowing
the appropriate proportion of specific heat of each constituent.
The value of mean specific heat of exhaust gases (Ap) can be assumed with sufficient
accuracy as 1 005 kJ/kg K.
The engine room temperature (Q and pressure of the engine room air are measured
with ordinary mercury thermometer and mercury barometer respectively. In order to estimate
the amount of moisture present in the air it is necessary to read temperatures of dry
bulb and wet bulb thermometers.
mass of exhaust gases per min.
(mg) x specific heat of exhaust
Then, heat carried away by
gases {kp) x [exhaust gases
exhaust gases per min.
temperature (tg) - engine room
temperature (/>)]
- mg x kp x {tg tr) kJ/min.
... (7.2)
175
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
100
kJ
'
ft
100
Total
100
Note : As discussed earlier the heat equivalent of the friction power is not included
in the heat balance on the right hand side because most of the heat absorbed in friction
will reappear in the jacket cooling water. The heat taken away by the jacket cooling water
is already included in the heat balance, and the. same amount energy must not be
included twice. Some frictional heat will also appear in the heat carried away by exhaust
176
gases, the remainder being included in the last item of heat balance, i.e., heat lost to
radiation, etc. This
applies to alltypes of internal combustion engines.
There are wide
variationsinthe relative proportions of the above losses,depending
upon the type, size, and operating conditions of the engine under consideration. For an
automobile engine operating on the Otto cycle, the distribution of heat may be : heat
converted into work about 25%, heat to the jacket cooling water 25%, heat carried away
by exhaust gases 35%, and radiation and other losses 15%. For a Diesel engine, the
distribution of heat
may be :heat converted into work about 30%, heat to
the jacket
cooling water 30%,
heat carriedaway by exhaust gases 30%, and radiation
and other
losses 10%.
The method of estimating the various items in the heat balance sheet is illustrated
by solved problems.
7.4 Perform ance P lotting
It is customary to show the performance of a variable speed engine
by plotting its characteristics against
<50 ,>20
engine speed in r.p.m. The two chief
characteristics are : brake power and
| 125*100
Mechank:a( et i
*
,
brake specific fuel consumption (kg
00 I s o
of fuel per kW-hr). It is, however,
/ vo
desirable to study those factors that
753=60
o
influence these two characteristics;
A
and auxiliary characteristics, such as
Y
50 si 40
&
volumetric
efficiency, indicated mean
Z
effective
pressure,
brake mean ef25 20
\ x is i
fective pressure, torque, indicated
power, friction power and mechanical
0
0
3000
4000
1000
2000
efficiency are often plotted. Typical
performance curves are shown in
0-60
140
fig. 7-2.
0-55 | 120
V olum etric
efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a measure
^0-50
100
of the perfection of the induction
process, and may be defined as the
f
I 0-4 5 60
ratio
of the volume of the induced
V
a
charge measured under conditions
* 040 | 60
approaching the engine, to the piston
O
displacement. The first characteristic
0*35
40
4000 that should be studied is volumetric
efficiency, as the power output
Fig. 7-2. Typical performance curves for an automatic engine at full depends directly on the amount of
throttle.
charge drawn into the cylinder. The
shape of the volumetric efficiency curve depends on the timing of the intake valve. The
volumetric efficiency is the highest at medium speeds, say from 1,200 to 2,000 r.p.m.,
as shown in fig. 7-2. It falls gradually as the speed increases or decreases.
7.4.1
Indicated m.e.p. : Although volumetric efficiency is an important factor in
determining the indicated m.e.p. produced by an infernal combustion engine, the heating
value of the charge and the indicated thermal efficiency are equally important. The heating
value of the charge will vary only if the air-fuel ratio it varied. As the engine is not
. , 1 7 5
.
AhmuU.
f-
177
designed for full load operation at very low speed, a poor thermal efficiency results. In
general, the i.m.e.p. of an internal combustion engine follows the volumetric efficiency
curve rather closely, but at low speeds it falls off a little more than does the volumetric
efficiency.
7.4.2. Indicated power : For a given engine, the indicated power is directly proportional
to the product of the i.m.e.p and r.p.m. At low and moderate speeds, there is a slight
change in i.m.e.p. Hence, over this range, the indicated power curve is almost a straight
line, the indicated power being practically proportional to the r.p.m. At higher speeds the
decrease in i.m.e.p. causes the indicated power to fall away from a straight line; and at
very high speeds, the i.m.e.p. falls off faster than the r.p.m. (speed) and the indicated
power decreases.
7.4.3 Friction power : The friction power of a given engine is a function of the
product of the frictional resistance and the r.p.m. The major portion of the engine friction
in an I.C. engine is the friction between the rings and cylinder walls, and between piston
and cylinder walls. With the thick oil film between them, the frictional resistance is directly
proportional to the speed. Frictional power should increase faster than the speed. Test
results show that this is true.
7.4.4 Brake power : The brake power is the difference between the indicated power
and friction power. As the friction power increases faster than the speed, the brake power
reaches a maximum value at a speed somewhat lower than that of maximum indicated
power. The speed for maximum brake power is known as the peak speed of the engine.
This is the speed at which automobile engines are usually rated.
7.4.5 Mechanical efficiency : Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake power and
indicated power, or ratio of the brake power to the sum of the brake power and friction
power. Since the friction power increases faster than the speed and since the brake
power fails to increase as fast as speed, the mechanical efficiency must decrease as the
speed increases. The decrease is gradual at low speeds, but becomes very rapid at high
speeds.
7.4.6 Brake M.E.P. As it is difficult to determine accurately either the indicated m.e.p.
or the indicated power for a high speed I.C. engine, the brake m.e.p. is calculated and
used instead. Brake m.e.p. is equ2l
to the product of the indicated m.e.p.
100 0-85
and mechanical efficiency. Hence,
the curve for brake m.e.p. is quite
similar in shape to that for the
i.m.e.p., but it falls off faster at high
speeds as shown in fig. 7-2.
7.4.7 Torque : Torque is the
turning effort produced by an engine.
For a given engine, torque is a
direct function of brake m.e.p. and
as such, the torque curve must have
the same shape as the brake m.e.p.
.0-10
0
20
40
60
80
100 -120 curve.
Percentage of rated
load
7.4.8 Brake specific fuel consum ption : It is the mass of a fuel
Fig. 7-3. Typical curves of brake specific fuel consumption and
required per kW-hour on brake power
mechanical efficiency for constant speed engines.
basjs
B rake specjfjc ^
consum p_
tion (b.s.f.c.) is inversely proportional to brake thermal efficiency. Since indicated thermal
178
efficiency falls off at low speeds, the b.s.f.c. becomes relatively high. At high speeds
although the indicated thermal efficiency remains high, the excessive frictional losses cause
decrease in the brake thermal efficiency and increase in b.s.f.c. Although the curves (fig.
7-2) that have been discussed are those of a variable speed spark-ignition engine, the
curves for a Diesel engine (compression-ignition engine) are similar.
For a constant speed engine, the curve most commonly plotted is the brake specific
fuel consumption versus load, although curves of mechanical and thermal efficiencies may
also be plotted as shown in fig. 7-3. For both the Diesel and spark-ignition types of
engines, the brake specific fuel consumption increases at heavy loads, primarily because
of the large amount of incomplete combustion that accompanies the low air-fuel ratio
used, to obtain the heavy loads. A light loads, the brake fuel rates for both types of
engines become rather large, prim arily. because the friction power being substantially
constant at a given speed, a large portion of the indicated power output is lost at light
loads. Hence, much more fuel must be used per kW-hour on brake power basis at light
loads.
Problem - 1 : The following observations were made during a test on a two-stroke
cycle oil engine :
Cylinder dimensions - 20 cm bore, 25 cm stroke ; speed, 6 r.p.s.; effective brake
drum diameter, 1.2 metres; net brke load, 440 newtons; indicated mean effective pressure,
280 kPa; fuel oil consumption, 3.6 kg/hr.; calorific value o f fuel oil, 42,500 kJ/kg; mass
o f jacket cooling water per hour, 468 kg; rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water,
28C; air used per kg of fuel oil, 34 kg; temperature o f air in test house, 30C; temperature
o f exhaust gases, 400C; mean specific heat o f exhaust gases, 1 H.J/kg K.
Calculate : (a) the brake power, (b) the indicated power, (c) the mechanical efficiency,
(d) the brake mean effective pressure, and (e) brake power fuel consumption in kg per
kW-hr. Draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and as percentages o f the heat supplied
to the engine. Calculate also the brake thermal efficiency o f the engine.
(a) Brake power = (W - S ) x R x 2 x x N watts
= 440 x 0-6 x 2 x 3-14 x 6 - 9,948 watts or 9948 kW
(b) Indicated power - pm x a x I x n watts
x 42,500 = 2,550
kJ/min.
179
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
2,550
100
596-88
23 41
914-5
35-86
777
30-47
261-62
10-26
Total
2,550
100
Total
2,550
100
_ . xl_
,
.
Heat equivalent of brake power per mm.
Brake thermal efficiency = -3- r ,
r c : c-----------------J
Heat supplied per min.
nnnAA
__
9-948 X 60
= = 0-2341 or 23-41 %
2,550
Problem - 2 : In a test o f an oil engine running under full load conditions, the
following results were obtained :
Brake power, 185 kW; Fuel consumption, 5-5 kg/hr; Calorific value of fuel oil, 43,000
kJ per kg; Inlet and outlet temperatures of cylinder circulating water, 15-5C and 712C
respectively; Rate o f flow o f cylinder circulating water, 4 6 kg/min.; Inlet and outlet
temperatures of water to exhaust gas calorimeter, 15-5C and 54 4C respectively; Rate
of flow of water through calorimeter, 81 kg pei min.; Temperature o f exhaust gases
leaving the calorimeter, 8 2 2 eC; Room temperature, 17C; Air-fuel ratio on mass basis,
20. Take the mean specific heat o f exhaust gases including vapour as 1005 kJ/kg K.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test on one minute basis and as percentages
13
180
3,942 kJ/min.
Using eqn. (7.3), total heat carried away by exhaust gases (wet) = (a) + (b)
= 1,312-5 + 126-1 = 1,438-6 kJ/min.
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (by difference)
= 3,942 - ( 1,110 + 1,072-8 + 1,438-6 ) = 320-6 kJ/min.
Exhaust
gas inlet
Exhaust calorimeter
Wat
I
tater
rfll
outlet
5* <*C ^
rp
:5 = "
Water
l i r u s
inlet 155 C
ura,n
Fig. 7-4. Exhaust gas calorimeter.
Exhaust gas
outlet 82-2*C
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
Heat supplied by
combustion of fuel oil
3,942
100
1,110-0
28 16
1,072-8
27-22
1,438 6
36-50
3,942
100
Total
320-6
812
3,942
100-00
181
Note : Heat to friction = indicated power - brake power, reappears partly in the heat
to jacket cooling water and partly in exhaust gases and radiation.
Problem - 3 : The following readings were taken during a test on a single-cylinder,
four-stroke cycle oil engine : Cylinder bore, 20 cm; Stroke length, 35 cm; Indicated mean
effective pressure, 700 kPa; Engine speed, 4 r.p.s; Fuel oil used per hour, 3-5 kg; Calorific
value o f oil, 46,000 kJ/kg; Brake torque,. 450 N.m; Mass o f jacket cooling water per
minute, 5 kg; Rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water, 40C; Mass o f air supplied per
minute, 1-35 kg; Temperature o f exhaust gases, 340C; Room temperature, 15C; Mean
specific heat o f dry exhaust gases, 1 kJ/kg K; Hydrogen in fuel, 13 5% on mass basis,
kp o f steam in exhaust gases, 2-3 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the mechanical and indicated thermal efficiencies and brake power fuel
consumption in kg per kW-hr. Also draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and as
percentages of the heat supplied to the engine.
Indicated power - pm x a x I x n watts
2
= (700 X 103) X ^
X ~
X |
= 15,400 watts or 15-4 kW
Brake power = (W - S) R x 2 i x W watts
=* T x 2x x N watts
watts or 11-304 kW
- 450 X 2 X 3-14 X 4 - 11,304
w
.. . . .
.
Brake power
11-304
=0-734 or 73-4%
Mechanical efficiency - 7=5--------- =
1
Indicated power
15-4
Indicated thermal efficiency - Heat equivalent of indicated power in kJ per min.
Heat supplied in kJ per min.
15 4 -* - 60
= 0-3443 or 34-43%
f f x 46,000
Fuel consumption in kg per kW-hr. on brake power basis
Q.C
= -7-
11 -304
=1-215 kg
182
= 1-215 x
(by difference)
Total
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
2,683.3
100
678 24
25 29
837-4
31-2
434-66
16 2
224 42
836
508-58
18 95
Toted
2,683-3
100
2,6833
100
183
... 73C
290C
250 r.p.m.
440 V, *25 Amp.
92%
Soon after the test the engine was motored by the dynamo taking current from the
mains : Applied voltage - 440 V; Current - 7.8 Amp.; Speed - 250 r.p.m.; Efficiency o f
the generator as motor - 92%
Draw up a heat balance sheet on percentage basis assuming that the steam in the
exhaust gases is at atmospheric pressure (1-01325 bar). Calculate the mechanical efficiency
o f the engine. Take kp o f dry exhaust gases as 1 kJ/kg K and kp o f steam as 2-1 kJ/kg
K
Heat supplied per 45 minutes :
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel = 2-9 x 46,900 = 1,36,010 kJ/ 45 min.
Heat expenditure per 45 minutes :
440
25
86 x 86
184
kJ
1,36,010
100
1,36,010
Total
_ ...
, .
Friction power of the engine
100
kJ
32,284
23-74
51,165
37-62
21,490
15 80
7,741-8
5-69
23,329-2
17-15
Total
1,36,010
100
>i
. _**
Brake power
Mechanical efficiency r\m =
;--------------- r
-----------7 1
Brake power + Friction power
__________
11-957
11-957
Problem - 5 : A six-cylinder, four-stroke Diesel engine has a bore to stroke ratio o f
360 : 500 mm. During the trial, following results were obtained :
Mean area o f the indicator diagram, 7 8 crrf; length of the indicator diagram, 7-5 cm;
spring number, 700 kPa per cm o f compression; brake torque, 14,000 N.m; speed, 8
r.p.s.; fuel consumption, 240 kg/hr; calorific value o f fuel oil, 44,000 kJ/kg; jacket cooling
water used, 320 kg/minute; rise in temperature of the cooling water,40C; piston
cooling
oil (specific heat, 2.1 kJ/kg K) used, 140 kg/min., with a temperature rise o f 28C. The
exhaust gases give up all their heat to 300 kg/minute o f water circulating through the
exhaust gas calorimeter and raises its temperature through 42C.
Calculate the brake specific fuel consumption in kg per kW-hour and mechanical
efficiency o f the engine and draw up a heat balance sheet o f the engine on the basis
o f 1 kg of fuel oil.
7*8
Indicated mean effective pressure, = pm = x 700 * 728 kPa
7*5
Indicated power per
cylinder = pm x a x I x n kW
= 728 x [0-7854
x (0-36)2]x 0-5 x |
148-2
kW
185
'
140 x 60
(3) Mass of piston cooling oil used per kg o f fuel oil =
= 35 kg
Heat lost to piston cooling oil per kg of fuel oil = 35x 2-1 x 28 =2,058 kJ/kg
(4) Mass of water circulated in exhaust gas calorimeter per kg of fuel oil
300 x 60
.
240
9
Heat lost to exhaust gases per kg o f fuel oil = 75 x 4-187 x 42 = 13,189 kJ/kg
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. per kg o f fuel oil (by difference)
= 44,000 - (10,556 + 13,398 + 2,058 + 13,189) = 4,789 kJ/kg
Heat balance sheet per kg o f fuel oil
Heat supplied per kg of fuel oil
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel oil
Total
kJ
kJ
44,000
10,566
13,398
2,058
13,189
4,789
Total
44,000
44,000
14 400
o.oOO
186
(700 x 103) x
TC
/25\
36
X
100
. j-. j-J
100
6,600
3,600
Pw ef M S 9
Vg X C.V.
26 666 x 3,600
- 0-2978 or 2978%
13-7 x 20,000
Brake thermal efficiency - Brake power x 3 , 600
Vg
18 086 x 3,600
13-7 x 20,000
C.V.
0-2376 or 2376%
Total
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
4,566-67
100
1,085-16
23-77
1,465-45
32-09
1,347-4
29-51
668-66
14.63
4,566 67
100-00
4,566-67
100
Total
187
350 newtons
. 0-9 metre
. 4.5 m3
. 18,000 kJ/m3
Calorific value o f gas at N.T.P.
. 0-97 kg/m3
Density o f gas at N.T.P.
. 4 7 5 rrt3
Total air consumed
. 1293 kg/m3
Density o f air at N.T.P.
. 725 mm Hg
Pressure o f air
. 15C
Temperature o f air
. 350C
Temperature of exhaust gases
. 1.05 kJ/kg K
Specific heat o f exhaust gases
. 165 kg
Mass o f jacket cooling water
...34C
Rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water
Calculate the mechanical and the overall efficiency. Also draw up a heat balance
sheet on one minute basis.
8 880
Number of explosions per minute - * - = 1 4 8
Net load on brake
Effective diameter o f brake wheel
Total gas consumption at N.T.P.
Indicated power = pm x a x / x n kW
= 590 x [0-7854 x (0-15)2 ] x 0-24 x
= 6-172 kW
, ^
PW6r
I ; - 0-8017 or 80-17%
Indicated
power - H
6-172
p iv i
pzvz
V2 = v\ x x
PZ
11
= 47-5 x
/ dU
doo
= 42-9 m3 per'hour.
188
42-9
= 0-927 kg.
60
kJ
1,350
1,350
Toted
kJ
296-9
391-5
351 -7
309.9
Total
1,350
i, ~s .
/u i
i
xc *
vBrake power heat equivalent in kJ per hr.
Overall efficiency ( brake thermal efficiency ) = ---------^
. . .------ c-----Heat supplied in kJ per hr.
4-948 x 3,600
= 0-22 or 22%
4-5 x 18,000
Problem - 8 : A single-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle gas engine o f 20 cm bore and 38
cm stroke, with hit and miss governing, was tested with the following results :
Barometer, 720 mm of Hg; Atmospheric and gas temperatures, 17C; Gas consumption
0153 m3/minute at 8 8 mm of water above atmospheric pressure; Calorific value of gas
18,000 kJ/m3 at N.T.P.; Density of gas 0.61 kg/m at N.T.P.; Hydrogen content in gas,
13% on mass basis; A ir used, 145 kg per minute; Kp of dry exhaust gases, 105 kJ/kgK;
Exhaust gas temperature, 400C; Kp of
steam, 21 kJ/kg K :
M.E.P. - Positive loop = 560 kPa at firing;
M.E.P. - Negative loop = 26 5 kPa at firing;
M.E.P. - Negative loop = 36 7 kPa at
missing;
Speed, 285 r.p.m., Explosions per minute, 114; Brake-torque, 335 N.m; Cylinder
jacket cooling water, 4 5 kg/minute; Rise
in temperature of jacket cooling water,
40C.
Calculate the percentages of the indicated power which are used for pumping
and for mechanical friction, and draw up
a percentage heat balance sheet.
The p -v diagram ( fig. 7-5 ) consists
of two enclosed areas. The negative loop,
Fig. 7-5.
189
i.e. smaller enclosed area dea gives the pumping loss due to admission of fresh charge
and removal of exhaust gases. The larger area abed ( positive loop ) represents the
gross work done by the piston during the cycle ( when firing ). The negative loop work
( indicated power) is to be deducted from the gross work ( indicated power) developed
to get the net work done ( indicated power ). The pumping loop (negative loop ) is
shown much exaggerated in the fig. 7-5.
Indicated power - pm x a x I x n kW
(where n = no. of explosions per sec.)
Positive loop indicated power or gross indicated power when firing ( hit )
= 560 x [ 0-7854 x (0-2)2 ] x 0-38 x ^
12-702 kW
Negative loop indicated power or pumping Indicated power when firing ( hit )
= 26-5 x [ 0-7854 x (0-2)2 ] x 0-38 x ~
= 0-601 kW
x (H I
^120
- = 0-208 kW
60 j
o,
12
pz x 7i
min-
190
(3) Mass of fuel gas 0-138 x 0-61 = 0-0842 kg/min, mass of air = 1-45 kg/min.
(given).
Mass of exhaust gases (including water vapour) = 1-45 + 0-0842 = 1-5342 kc^min.
Now, mass of water vapour (steam) of combustion per min.
= (9H2) x mass of fuel gas per min. - (9 x 0-13) x 0-0842 = 0-0985 kg/min.
Hence, mass of dry exhaust gases per min.
= mass of wet exhaust gases/min. - mass of water vapour/min.
= 1-5342 - 0-0985 = 1-4357 kg/min.
Heat lost to dry exhaust gases per min. = 1-4357 x 1-05 x (400 - 17) - 577-4
kJ/min.
(4) Assuming the partial pressure of the water vapour as 0-07 bar,
at 0-07 bar, Hs = 2,572-5 kJ/kg, ts = 39C (from steam tables).
Enthalpy of 1 kg of water vapour = Hs + Kp (t sup - ts) - h
- 2,572-5 + 2-1 (400 - 39) - (17 x 4-187) 3,259-4 kJ per kg
Heat lost to water vapour (steam) per min.
= mass of steam formed per min x enthalpy of one kg of steam
= 0-0985 x 3,259-4 = 321 kJ/min.
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (obtained by difference) per min.
= 2,484 - ( 600 + 753-7 + 577-4 + 321 ) = 231-9 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet in kJ per minute
Heat supplied/min.
kJ
Heat supplied by
2,484
100
combustion of gas
kJ
600
24-15
7537
30.34
577-4
23-25
321
12-92
231 9
9.34
Total
2,484
100
Heat expenditure/min
,, (1) To brake power
(4) To steam
Total
2,484
100
191
0 00178 m
- T i ' Me3Sm>
the cylinder is occupied by air-gas mixture,
Volume of air-gas mixture per stroke at N.T.P.
= -------------- -= - J---------r _ ,---------------Swept volume per stroke
002014
- 00236 a847 r M 7 %
the cylinder is occupied by air only,
Volume of air per stroke at N.T.P.
= ------= P------------ -------Swept volume per stroke
192
Subtracting by turn (b), (c), (d) and (e) from (a), we get,
B i + F i = 16*2 11*5 = 4-70 kW
Indicated poweri
B2 + F2 = 16*2 11-6 = 4-60 kW
Indicated power2
B3 + F3 = 16-2 11*68 = 4*52 kW
Indicated powers
B4 + F4 = 16*2 11*57 = 4*63 kW
Indicated powe.r4
Total indicated power developed = 18*45 kW
Mechanical efficiency,
- i f !
" 0878
878,4
3,6
18*45 x 3,600
_ 0.3138
(7 x 0-72) x 42,000
31 38%
T u to ria l-7
1.
(vi) Number of cycles per min. in case of a four-stroke cycle, I.C. engine is equal to / N, where N is
r.p.m. of the engine.
(vii) In case of a supercharged I.C. engine, the pressure during the suction stroke is higher/lower than the
existing atmospheric pressure.
(viii) The quantity of burnt gases left in the two-stroke cycle I.C. engine cylinder is more/less than that left
in the four-stroke cycle engine cylinder.
(ix) The warm-up performance of an air-cooled I.C. engine is poor/good as compared to a water-cooled
engine.
(x) For an I.C. engine, friction power increases/decreases with increase in the speed of the engine.
I Delete : (i) smaller, (ii)
193
'
size.
(a) one
(b) one
(c) one
(d) one
A petrol engine develops maximum power when it is supplied with air-fuel ratio of :
(a) 17.5 to 18.5,
(b) 16 to 17,
(c) 12.5 to 13-5,
(d) 10-5 to 11-5
Total
kJ
6,160
6,160
Heat expenditure/mifl.
kJ
1,413.7
1,658-1
(3) To exhaust,radiation,errors of
observation,etc. (by difference)
3,088-2
Total
6,160-0
5. Describe briefly how you would conduct the brake power test on a small I.C. engine, listing clearly all the
observations you would take.
During the trial of a single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle oil engine, the following results were obtained : Cylinder
diameter, 20 cm; Stroke, 40 cm; Indicated mean effective pressure, 600 kPa; Brake-torque, 415 N.m; Speed,
250 r.p.m.; Oil consumption, 5-25 litres per hour; Specific gravity of oil, 0-8; Calorific value of the fuel oil,
47,500 kJ/kg; Jacket cooling water, 4-5 kg per minute; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water, 50*C;
Air used per kg of oil, 31 kg; Temperature of exhaust gases, 400*C, Room temperature, 20*C; M6 an
specific heat of exhaust gases, 1-005 kJ/kg K.
Calculate, the indicated power, the brake power and the brake mean effective pressure and draw up a
194
heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/min. What are the principal heat losses which are not accounted for
in the heat balance sheet ?.
__________________________________________
Heat supplied/min.
ia
3,325
Total
3,325
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
651-9
942.1
855-5
875.5
Total
3,325-0
6 . A trial carried out on a four-stroke cycle, single-cylinder oil engine working on Otto cycle gave the following
results :
Cylinder diameter, 18 cm; stroke, 36 cm; Clearance volume, 1,830 cm3; Speed, 280 r.p.m.; Area of indicator
diagram, 4-25 cm8; Length of indicator diagram, 6-25 cm; Spring strength, 1,000
kPa/cm; Net brake lo
600 newtons; Effective brake wheel diameter, 1-2 m; Fuel used per hour, 4-25 litres; Specific gravity of
fuel oil, 0-8; Calorific value of fuel oil, 43,000 kJ/kg; Mass of Jacket cooling water, 7 kg/min; Rise in
temperature of Jacket cooling water, 27*C; Air used per kg of fuel, 34 kg; Exhaust gas temperature, 410*C;
Room temperature, 30*C; Specific heat of exhaust gases, 1-005 kJ/kg K.
Calculate : (a) the mechanical efficiency, (b) the indicated thermal efficiency,(c) the air-standard efficiency,
and (d) the relative efficiency. Assume y = 1-4 for air.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/min.
I (a) T)m = 72-62% ; (b) t)/ = 35-79% ; (c) A.S.E. = 51-15% ; (d) t|r = 69-97% J
Heat supplied/min.
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
2,436-7
633-4
791-3
757-4
254.6
Total
2,436-7
2,4367
Total
7. In a test of an oil engine under full load condition the following results were obtained : indicated power,
33 kW; brake power, 26 kW; Fuel used, 10-5 litres per hour; Calorific value of fuel of oil, 43,000 kJ per
kg; Specific gravity of fuel oil, 0 -8 ; Inlet and outlet temperatures of cylinder jacket cooling water, 15*C and
70*C; Rate of flow of cylinder jacket cooling water, 7 kg per minute; Inlet and outlet temperatures of water
to exhaust gas calorimeter, 15*C and 55*C; Rate of flow of water through exhaust gas calorimeter, 12-5
kg per minute; Final temperature of exhaust gases, 82*C; Room temperature, 17*C; Air-fuel ratio on mass
basis, 20; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases including water vapour, 1-005 kJ/kg K. Draw up a heat
balance sheet for the test in kJ per minute and estimate the thermal and mechanical efficiencies.
[ 11/ = 32-89%; t\b = 2591%; rjm = 78-79% ]
Heat supplied/min.
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel oil
kJ
6,020
1,560
1,612
2,285-6
6,020
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
Total
562-4
6,020
8 . A six-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, Diesel engine of 34 cm diameter and 38 cm stroke, gave the following
results : r.p.m. 350; brake power 175 kW; i.m.e.p. 380 kPa; fuel used per hour 54 litres of calorific value
44,800 kJ/kg; specific gravity of fuel oil 0-815; hydrogen content in fuel 14% on mass basis; air consumption
38 kg/min.; jacket cooling water used 60-2 kg/min. with a temperature rise of 31*C; piston cooling oil of
specific heat 2-1 kJ/kg K used, 32 kg/min. with a temperature rise of 20*C; exhaust gas temperature 190*C;
room temperature 20*C; specific heat of dry exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; kp of steam in exhaust gases
195
2 kJ/kg K; partial pressure of steam in exhaust gases 0-07 bar. Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the
engine and draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ per miqute indicating, the items which may include friction
losses.
[ rim = 76-8%
Heat supplied/min.
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel
Total
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
32,860
10,500.0
7,813-8
1,344-0
6,460-4
2,579-3
4,162-5
Total
32,860
32,860
Duration of test 40 minutes; Total no. of revolutions 8,080; Total no of explosions 3,230; Net load on the
brake 920 newtons; Indicated mean effective pressure 575 kPa; Gas used 7-7 m3 ; Pressure of gas at
meter 130 mm of water above atmospheric pressure; Gas temperature 15C; Height of barometer 750 mm
of Hg; Calorific value of gas, 19,500 kJ/m3 at normal temperature ( 0C ) and pressure ( 760 mm Hg);
Mass of jacket cooling water 183 kg; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water 50*C.
Calculate the indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in k j per minute.
{ 19-938 kW; 15.764 kW ]
Heat supplied/min.
Heat supplied by combustion of gas
kJ
3,556 8
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
945-8
957-8
(3) To exhaust,radiation,errors of
observation,etc. (by difference)
1,653-2
3,556 8
3,5568
Total
Total
t .....- - ........................................
.... .
...
*3
10. The following results were obtained in a test on a gas engine : Gas used 0-125 m per minute at N.T.P.;
Calorific value of gas 16,700 kJ/m3 at N.T.P.; Density of gas 0-64 kg per m3 at N.T.P.; Air used 1-52 kg
per minute; Specific heat of exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; Temperature of exhaust gases 397*C; Room
temperature 17*C; Jacket cooling water per minute 6 kg; Rise in temperature of Jacket cooling water 26C;
Indicated power 9-51 kW; Brake power 7-5 kW. Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine and draw
up a heat balance sheet for the trial on one minute basis in kJ.
[ rm = 78 95% J
Heat supplied/min.
Heat supplied by combustion of gas
kJ
2,087-5
Heat expenditure/min.
(1) To Brake power
2,087-5
450
653.2
611
kJ
Total
373.3
2,087-5
11. Describe briefly the method of determining the indicated power of a multi-cylinder petrol engine by cutting
out one cylinder at a time. State the assumptions made.
A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine is running on a brake having a radius of 1 metre. When all the
four cylinders are firing, the r.p.m. is 1,400. The net brake load is 145 newtons. When spark plug of each
cylinder is short circuited in turn, the net loads on the brake are 100, 103, 102 and 99.5 newtons respectively.
The speed is maintained constant throughout the test. Estimate the indicated power and mechanical efficiency
of the engine when all the cylinders are firing. If the cylinder bore is 9 cm and stroke is 12 cm, what is
14
196
[ 25-73
12. During a trial on a single-cylinder oil engine having cylinder diameter of 30 cm., stroke 45 cm, and working
on the four-stroke cycle, the following observations were made :
Duration of trial one hour; total fuel oil used 8-1 kg; calorific value of fuel oil 44,800 kJ/kg; total no. of
revolutions 12,600; mean effective pressure 690 kPa; net load on thebrake 1,550 newtons; diameter of
the brake wheel drum 1-78 metres; thickness of the brake belt 2 cm; jacket cooling water circulated 550
litres; inlet temperature of cooling water 16*C; outlet temperature of cooling water 61 *C. Estimate the indicated
thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency of engine. Draw up a percentage heat balance sheet for
the trial.
I i]i = 38-1%; T)6 = 30-34% J
Heat supplied per minute
Heat supplied by
combustion of fuel oil
Total
kJ
6,048
100
6,048
100
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
1.839.7
30.41
1.727.7
28.56
(3) To exhaust,radiation,
errors of observations,etc. (by
difference)
2,480-6
41-03
6,048
100
Total
13. A trial of one hour duration on a petrol engine gave the following results :
Brake power 15 kW; Petrol consumption 6-4 litres; Specific gravity of petrol 0-74; Hydrogen content in
petrol 15% on mass basis; Calorific value of petrol 44,400 kJ/kg; Fuel air-ratio 1 : 1 5 ; Temperature of
exhaust gases 415*C; Room temperature 27*C; Specific heat of dry exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; Partial
pressure of steam in exhaust gases 0-07 bar; Kp of steam 2-1 kJ/kg K; Mass of water passing through
the cylinder jackets 270 litres; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water 50*C.
At the end of the trial the engine was motored and the input power was 4 kW. Calculate the mechanical
efficiency of engine and draw up a heat balance sheet for the trial on one minute basis and as percentage
of the heat supplied to the engine.
[i)m = 78-95% ]
Heat supplied/min.
kJ
Heat supplied by
combustion of fuel oil
Total
3,504-6
3,504-6
100
100
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
900
25 68
942-1
26 88
450-8
1286
3476
992
(5) To radiation,errors of
observation, etc.
(by difference)
864-1
24 66
3,5046
100
Total
14. A single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gas engine has a bore to stroke ratio of 250/380 mm. During the trial
the following results were noted :
Duration of trial 60 minutes; Effective brake load 1,300 newtons: Effective circumference of the brake
wheel 3-8 metres; Total no. of revolutions 13,500; Total no. of explosions 6,000; Indicated m.e.p. 700 kPa;
Total fuel gas used 16 m3; Temperature of fuel gas 15C; Pressure of fuel gas above atmospheric pressure
200 mm of water; Barometer reading 742 mm of Hg; Calorific value of fuel gas at N.T.P. (0*C and 760
mm of Hg) 20,500 kJ/m3; Density of fuel gas at N.T.P. 0 8 kg/m3; Hydrogen content in fuel gas on mass
basis 14%; Total mass of air used 210 kg; Exhaust gas temperature 400 C: Specific heat of dry exhaust
gases 1 005 kJ/kg K; Kp of steam 2-1 kJAg K; Total mass of cylinder jacket cooling water 600 kg: Rise
in temperature of jacket cooling water 35C.
Draw up a heat balance sheet on one minute basis and as percentages of the heat supplied to the
engine, assuming that the steam in the exhaust gases is at atmospheric pressure. Also calculate the
indicated power, brake power and mechanical efficiency of the engine.
[ 21 762 kW; 18-525 kW; 85-13 %)
197
kJ
Heat supplied by
combustion of gas
5,160
100
5,160
Total
100
kJ
1,111-5
21-54
1,465-5
28-41
1,334
25 85
8226
15-94
(5) To radiation,errors of
observation, etc.
(by difference)
426-4
826
Total
5,160
100
Heat expenditure/min.
15. The following observations were made during a trial of a single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gas engine having
cylinder diameter 18 cm and stroke 24 cm :
Duration of trial one hour; Total number of revolutions 18,000; Total number of explosions 8,800; i.m.e.p.
590 kPa; Net load on the brake wheel 400 newtons; Effective diameter of brake wheel 1 metre; Total gas
used at N.T.P. 4-5 m3 Calorific value of gas at N.T.P. 18,800 kJ/m3; Density of gas at N.T.P. 0-96 kg/m3;
Total air used 71-25 m ; Pressure of air 720 mm of Hg; Temperature of air 15*C; Density of air at N.T.P.
1-293 kg/m3; Temperature of exhaust gases 350*C; Room temperature 15*C; Specific heat of exhaust gases
1-005 kJ/kg K; Total mass of cylinder jacket cooling water 160 kg; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling
water 35*C.
Calculate the mechanical efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Also draw up a heat
balance sheet in kJ on one minute basis.
[ rim = 70-68%; T)/- 37-83% ]
kJ
Heat supplied./min.
Heat supplied by
combustion of gas
1,410
1,410
Total
kJ
Heat expenditure/min.
(1) To brake power
3770
3908
488 5
(4) To radiation,errors of
observation, etc. (by difference)
153-7
1,410-0
Total
16. The following reading were taken during a test on single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle oil engine :
Cylinder diameter
. 280 mm
Stroke length
. 425 mm
Gross i.m.e.p.
.. 724 kPa
Pumping i.m.e.p.
. 40 kPa
Engine speed
. 200 r.p.m.
. 1,300 newtons
. 1,6 meters
. 9 kg
. 42,000 kJ/kg
. 11 kg
. 36*C
35 kg
. 375C
Room temperature
. 15*C
. 14%
. 0 07 bar
198
Kp of steam
Draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/minute, indicating which items may include friction losses. Calculate also
the indicated power, brake power, mechanical efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency and overall efficiency
of the engine.
[29-833 kW; 21-784 kW; i|m = 73% ; i|/= 28-14%; u>= 20-74%
I
Heat supplied/min.
kJ
Heat supplied by
combustion of fuel oil
6,300
Total
6,300
Heat expenditure/min.
kJ
1,306-9
1,658-1
1,885-3
607-7
842-0
Total
6,300
kJ
Heat supplied by
combustion of fuel oil
Total
2,975
2.975
100
100
kJ
746-04
25-08
837-4
483 95
16 27
302 03
10-15
(5) To radiation,errors of
observation, etc. (by difference)
605 58
2035
Total
2,975
100-00
Heat expenditure/min.
2 8 ,5