A Global Perspective On Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

ERIC DIGEST
EDO-FL-99-04 AUGUST 1999
A Global Perspective on Bilingualism and

Bilingual Education
G. RICHARD TUCKER, CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY
The number of languages spoken throughout the world is estimated to be 6,000 (Grimes, 1992). Although a small number of languages, including Arabic, Bengali, English, French, Hindi, Malay,
Mandarin, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish serve as important link
languages or languages of wider communication around the world,
these are very often spoken as second, third, fourth, or later-acquired
languages. Fewer than 25% of the worlds approximately 200 countries recognize two or more official languages, with a mere handful
recognizing more than two (e.g., India, Luxembourg, Nigeria). However, despite these conservative government policies, available data
indicate that there are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual. In addition, there
are many more children throughout the world who have been and
continue to be educated through a second or a later-acquired language, at least for some portion of their formal education, than
there are children educated exclusively via the first language. In
many parts of the world, bilingualism or multilingualism and innovative approaches to education that involve the use of two or
more languages constitute the normal everyday experience (see, e.g.,
Dutcher, 1994; World Bank, 1995). The results from published, longitudinal, and critical research undertaken in varied settings
throughout the world indicate clearly that the development of
multiple language proficiency is possible, and indeed that it is viewed
as desirable by educators, policy makers, and parents in many
countries.
munication (e.g., Haiti, Nigeria, the Philippines); (2) those with some
mother tongue speakers of the language of wider communication
(e.g., Guatemala); and (3) those with many mother tongue speakers
of the language of wider communication (e.g., Canada, New Zealand,
the United States). Several conclusions can be drawn from this study:
Success in school depends upon the childs mastery of cognitive/
academic language, which is very different from the social language used at home.
The development of cognitive/academic language requires time
(4 to 7 years of formal instruction).
Individuals most easily develop literacy skills in a familiar language.
Individuals most easily develop cognitive skills and master content material when they are taught in a familiar language.
Cognitive/academic language skills, once developed, and content
subject material, once acquired, transfer readily from one language
to another.
The best predictor of cognitive/academic language development
in a second language is the level of development of cognitive/
academic language proficiency in the first language.
Children learn a second language in different ways depending upon
their culture and their individual personality.
If the goal is to help the student ultimately develop the highest
possible degree of content mastery and second language profiMultiple Languages in Education
ciency, time spent instructing the child in a familiar language is a
The use of multiple languages in education may be attributed to
wise investment.
numerous factors, such as the linguistic heterogeneity of a country
or region, specific social or religious attitudes, or the desire to pro- Common Threads of Successful Programs
mote national identity. In addition, innovative language education
In the research review conducted for the World Bank (Dutcher,
programs are often implemented to promote proficiency in inter- 1994), the following common threads were identified in successful
national language(s) of wider communication together with profi- programs that aimed to provide students with multiple language
ciency in national and regional languages. In Eritrea, for instance, proficiency and with access to academic content material.
an educated person will likely have had some portion of their school Development of the mother tongue is encouraged to promote coging in Tigrigna and Arabic and English, and will have developed
nitive development and as a basis for learning the second lanproficiency in reading all these languages, which are written using
guage.
three different scripts (Geez, Arabic, and Roman). In Papua New
Guinea, a country with a population of approximately 3 million, Parental and community support and involvement are essential.
linguists have described more than 870 languages (Summer Insti- Teachers are able to understand, speak, and use with a high level
tute of Linguistics, 1995). Here it is common for a child to grow up
of proficiency the language of instruction, whether it is their first
speaking one local indigenous language at home, to speak another
or second language.
in the market place, to add Tok Pisin to her repertoire as a lingua Teachers are well trained, have cultural competence and subjectfranca, and to learn English if she continues her schooling. Analomatter knowledge, and continually upgrade their training.
gous situations recur in many parts of the world in countries where
Recurrent costs for innovative programs are approximately the
multilingualism predominates and in which children are exposed
same as they are for traditional programs, although there may be
to numerous languages as they move from their homes out into
additional one-time start-up costs.
surrounding communities and eventually through the formal edu Costbenefit calculations can typically be estimated in terms of
cation system.
the cost savings to the education system, improvements in years
Research on the Use of First and Second Languages in
of schooling, and enhanced earning potential for students with
multiple language proficiency.
Education
A comprehensive review of research on the use of first and secCross-Cutting Themes
ond languages in education, carried out for the World Bank (Dutcher,
Two cross-cutting themes that appear critical for policy or plan1994), examined three different types of countries: (1) those with
no (or few) mother tongue speakers of the language of wider com- ning discussions within the domain of language education reform
are discussed below.
ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS CENTER FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS 4646 40TH ST NW WASHINGTON DC 20016-1859 (202) 362-0700
Nurturing the first language. Despite decades of sound educational research, there still remains a belief in many quarters that
when an additional language is introduced into a curriculum, the
child must go back and relearn the academic concepts already mastered. Although there remains much to be learned about the contexts and strategies that facilitate transfer across languages, the fact
that such transfer occurs should not be a topic of debate. The work
of Hakuta (1986) and his colleagues provides clear evidence that a
child who acquires basic literacy or numeracy concepts in one language can transfer these concepts and knowledge easily to a second
or third or other later-acquired languages. The literature and our
practical experience are replete with examples confirming the importance of nurturing the childs mother tongue. Gonzalez (1998),
in particular, writes and speaks especially compellingly about the
need to develop basic functions of literacy, numeracy, and scientific discourse in the first language to the fullest extent possible
while facilitating transfer to the second language.
Importation of models versus importation of cycles of discovery. Swain (1996) described the need to transfer the stages
and processes of evaluation, theory building, generation of hypotheses, experimentation, and further evaluation that will help to ensure the implementation of programs appropriate for the unique
sociocultural contexts in which they will operate. That is, she cautioned that it is not a particular model of innovative language education (and, in particular, a Western model) that should be transferred but rather a cycle of discovery that should be transferred.
Swain reminded us that the so-called threshold levels of second
language skills required for successful participation in formal education may differ dramatically across content areas, and that a majority of children face a language gap that must be bridged when
they move from learning the target language to using the target
language as a medium of instruction. Many policy makers have
characterized bilingual education as a high risk undertaking, by
which they mean that it is necessary to attend to a complex set of
interacting educational, sociolinguistic, economic, and political
factors.
Key Issues Warranting Further Attention

Based upon a review of available literature, four areas have been
identified that appear to deserve additional attention. These include
(1) sociolinguistic research throughout the world; (2) a more thorough examination of the concept and parameters of transfer; (3)
materials development, reproduction, and distribution in the truly
less commonly spoken languages (e.g., the majority of the African
languages spoken in Namibia); and (4) development of a cadre of
trained teachers who are proficient speakers of these languages.
Despite several decades of extensive sociolinguistic fieldwork in
many areas, there remains much to be done to describe the language situation in many parts of the world. Many of the worlds
languages have yet to be written, codified, or elaborated. Furthermore, there are no materials available for initial literacy training or
for advanced education; nor are there teachers who have been
trained to teach via many of the worlds languages. These are all
issues that have been identified as crucial by the World Bank (1995)
in a recent report of priorities and strategies for enhancing educational development in the 21st century. They are issues that must
be dealt with effectively before systemic reform that will encourage
multilingual proficiency can be widely implemented.
part. Below are a number of important questions to be addressed

whenever parents, educators, and adminstrators discuss the prospects of multilingual education for their communities.
What are the explicit or implicit goals for formal education in the
region?
Is there general satisfaction throughout the region with the level
of educational attainment by all participants (both those who terminate their education relatively early and those who wish to go
on to tertiary studies)?
Is the region relatively homogeneous or is it heterogeneous linguistically and culturally, and how would bilingual education
complement the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the community?
Does the region have an explicit or implicit policy with respect to
the role of language in education, and how would bilingual education fit or not fit with this existing policy? Is this policy based
upon tradition or the result of language (education) planning?
What priorities are accorded to goals such as the development of
broadly based permanent functional literacy, the value of education for those who may permanently interrupt their schooling at
an early age, and the power of language to foster national identity
and cohesiveness?
Are the language(s) selected for instruction written, codified, standardized, and elaborated?
Is there a well developed curriculum for the various levels/stages
of formal educationthat is, a framework that specifies fairly explicitly a set of language, content, cognitive, and affective objectives that are then tied to or illustrated by exemplary techniques,
activities, and supported by written materials?
Are sufficient core and reference materials available for teachers
and students in the language(s) of instruction? If not, are there
trained individuals available who can prepare such materials?
Is there a sufficient number of trained and experienced teachers
who are fluent speakers of the language(s) of instruction and who
are trained to teach via that language(s)?
References
Dutcher, N., in collaboration with Tucker, G.R. (1994). The use of

first and second languages in education: A review of educational experience. Washington, DC: World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific
Region, Country Department III.
Gonzalez, A. (1998). Teaching in two or more languages in the Philippine context. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds.), Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual education (pp. 192-205).
Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Grimes, B.F. (1992). Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Dallas, TX:
Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New
York: Basic Books.
Summer Institute of Linguistics. (1995). A survey of vernacular education programming at the provincial level within Papua New Guinea.
Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea: Author.
Swain, M. (1996). Discovering successful second language teaching
strategies and practices: From program evaluation to classroom
experimentation. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 17, 89-104.
World Bank. (1995). Priorities and strategies for education. WashingQuestions to Address Regarding Multilingual
ton, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelEducation in Your Community
opment.
The cumulative evidence from research conducted over the last
three decades at sites around the world demonstrates conclusively
This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational
that cognitive, social, personal, and economic benefits accrue to Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, under contract no. ED-99-COthe individual who has an opportunity to develop a high degree of 0008. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI,
bilingual proficiency when compared with a monolingual counter- or NLE.
ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS TOLL-FREE PHONE 800-276-9834 E-MAIL [email protected] WWW.CAL.ORG/ERICCLL
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ERIC DIGEST

EDO-FL-99-04 AUGUST 1999

A Global Perspective on Bilingualism and

Key Issues Warranting Further Attention

part. Below are a number of important questions to be addressed

Dutcher, N., in collaboration with Tucker, G.R. (1994). The use of

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