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ED 366 187 FL 021 745

AUTHOR Crandall, JoAnn; Tucker, G. Richard

TITLE Content-Based Language Instruction in Second and
Foreign Languages.
PUB DATE 90
NOTE 16p.; In Sarinee, Anivan, Ed. Language Teaching
Methodology for the Nineties. Anthology Series 24;
see FL 021 739.
PUB TYPE Viewpoints (Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.)
(120) Speeches/Conference Papers (150)

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DESCRIPTORS Classroom Techniques; Curriculum Design; Educational
Trends; Elementary See:.ary Education; *English
(Second Language); iligher Education; Instructional
Materials; *Language of Instruction; Program
Development; Research Needs; Second Language
Instruction; *Second Languages; Trend Analysis;
Vocational Education; Writing Instruction
IDENTIFIERS *Content Area Teaching

ABSTRACT
Content-based language instruction is an integrated
approach to language instr.1,:tion drawing topics, texts, and tasks
from content or subject-matter classes but focusing on the cognitive,
academic language skills required to part;cipate effectively in
content instruction. It is of growing interst ko teachers of both
English as a Second Language and other second languages. It has been
used in courses of English for academic and special purposes,
vocational English, programs for foreign teaching assistants, partial
or total language immersion, academic courses, and two-way bilingual
programs, and at all instructional levels. Another approach is for
content teachers to adapt instruction to differential language
proficiency levels in the class. Attributes of content-based
instruction include: instructional objectives drawn from language,
academic content, and cognitive skills; schema knowledge developed in
the language of instruction; inclusion of content-obligatory and
content-compatible languages; paired and small-group work; wide range
of materials; multiple media and presentation techniques;
experiential and discovery learning; and use of writing for both
cognitive and evaluative purposes. Content-based instruction often
begins with collaboration of a language and a content teacher.
Additional work is needed in teacher education, student assessment,
program evaluation, and instructional material development. (MSE)

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from the original document.
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 CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION IN
SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

JOANN CRANDALL AND G. RICHARD TUCKER

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOLIRCS merit do not necessarily represent one ial
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 CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION IN
SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Jo Ann Crandall and G Richard Tucker

Content-based language instruction is an integrated approach to language

instruction drawing topics, texts, and tasks from content or subject matter class-
es, but focusing on the cognitive, academic language skills required to participate
effectively in content instruction. The integration of language and content in-
struction and the subsequent development of content-based language programs
is of growing importance in both second and foreign language instruction in the
United States, and we suspect will be of interest to language educators in other
settings as well. .

In this paper we will:

1. discuss the intent and design or content-based instructional programs;

2. describe some of the strategies and techiques which characterize these
programs;
3. outline some means by which such programs are implemented; and
4. identify some areas of needed research and development.

WHY INTEGRATE LANGUAGE AND CONTENT

INSTRUCTION?
Increasingly, secoucl and foreign language educators in the United States
are turning to academic subject or content areas as a means of improving lan-
guage instruction and meeting the special language needs of their students. The
(English as a) second language teacher is faced with a dramatic rise in the
number of language minority students in American schools and the need to
prepare them to compete successfully in English-medium classes, while the
foreign language teacher is faced with the increased recognition among language
majority individuals of the importance of foreign language proficiency and the
need to help students develop more than minimal foreign language skills.
Integrated language and content instructional programs offcr an opportuni-
ty to both broaden and deepen a student's proficiency in the foreign or second
language. Such programs provide students the possibility of acquiring the more
formal, decontextualized, cognitively complex academic language used in solving

83
problems and communicating ideas and thoughts orally and in writing (Cum-
mains, 1981; Snow, 1987). Content-based language instructional programs are
designed to help students achieve language proficiency beyond development of
social language skills which are more commonly addressed in language
classrooms or the knowledge of the forms of language (Cantoni-flarvey, 1987;
Curtain and Peso la, 1988; Mohan, 1986).
Thc integation of language and content instruction, then, is of major inter-
est to both second (English) and foreign (Spanish, French, Chinese, etc) lan-
guage educators. For second language educators, the need is acute. During the
past fifteen years, the number of language minority individuals in the United
States has increased dramatically and today, it represents the fastest-growing
population. AS a result, in many metropolitan school districts, the majority of the
school-age population comes from homes in which a language other than Eng-
lish is spoken. Because of demographic trends, these numbers are rapidly in-
creasing; by the year two thousand, the majority of children in major metropoli-
tan area schools will most likely be language minority.
Although some of these students enter school with some proficiency in
English, their proficiency is not usually adequate for them to undertake the
complex cognitive tasks in English that school demands, and for those who enter
with little or no English, the challenge is even greater. Bilingual education
programs are provided in some areas, enabling students to continue cognitive
and academic growth in their mother tongue while they are studying English,
but these programs are relatively scarce. More common are transitional pro-
grams in which students are provided with English as a second language instruc-
tion for an hour or so a day, usually for one to three years, during which time
they are expected to acquire sufficient grounding in English to be able to receive
all their instruction in regular, English medium classes with their English-speak-
ing peers. Unfortunately, as a number of studies have demonstrated, while these
students often arc able to interact socially in English--to talk informally with
other children and with their teachers--they are not able to perform the more
cognitively complex academic latiguage tasks which are required of them in their
math, science, or social studies classes. They lack what has been called Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency (Cummins, 1981; Dawe, 1984) or the ability to
deal with increasingly decontextualized language (Snow, 1987), the kind of lan
guage proficiency needed to understand math language and solve math prob-
lems; to read science textbooks, conduct experiments, and write lab reports; and
to interpret maps, graphs, and charts and write essays in social studies. Almost
immediately after being "mainstreamed," that is, after being exited from their
ESL programs, these students begin to experience difficulty in thcir academic
work, falling progressively behind their English-speaking peers (Collier, 1987).
The problem is especially great for Hispanic students who constitute the
largest minority language group. Approximately 50% of these students will leave

84
school before graduation. One statistic alone illustrates the severity of the situa-
tion: if a student in the United States is Hispanic, was born outside of the
United States, entered school speaking no English, lives in a family which is at or
below the poverty line, and is male, his chances of graduating from high school,
statistically speaking, are almost 0%! (Cardenas, Robledo and Waggoner, 1988).
While socioeconomic status, educational role models, cross-cultural communica-
tion problems, and other factors play a role, a significant factor in the education-
al failure of these students is the burden which English language medium in-
struction places on them, especially in mathematics and science (Crandall, Dale,
Rhodes and Spanos, in press; Cuevas, 1984; Duran, 1979).
For language majority students the need is also great. Relatively few
American students study a foreign language for more than two years, and those
who do rarely achieve sufficient proficiency to gain access to more than basic or
simplified texts written in that language or to be able to carry on discussions of a
complex nature or otherwise interact or negotiate effectively in that language. If
students are not presented with complex cognitive texts and tasks, with opportu-
nities to develop advanced oral and written language skills in their foreign lan-
guage classes, then it is not surprising that they exit from their foreign language
programs with only minimal proficiency. Foreign language educators, then, are
looking toward content-enriched or content-based language instructio to help
expand the proficiency of language majority students by presenting at least a
portion of the academic curriculum through a foreign language (Curtain and
Peso la, 1988; Schinke-Llano, 1985).

CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION:

SOME PROGRAM MODELS
Content-based language instruction is not really new to English language
teaching. It has been used in tertiary programs in English for Specific Purposes
or in secondary or tertiary programs which teach English for Academic Pur-
poses; in adult programs which teach Vocational English while teaching related
job skills; and even in programs to train foreign teaching assistants at the univer-
sity. Traces of its origins can also be found in efforts to teach writing across the
curriculum or reading skills in the content areas. (See Crandall, 1987 for a fuller
discussion.) However, the scope has increased dramatically in the current inte-
grated language and content instructional programs, with instruction provided by
language teachers, content teachcrs, or teams of both.
Foreign language teachers have implemented content-based language in-
struction in a number of programs. These include partial or total immersion
programs, where a part of the child's academic instruction is received through
the medium of a foreign language; the delivery of an academic course (often

85
 history or related social studies) through the
foreign language; and innovative
two-way interlocking or bilingual immersion programs in
or more ethnolinguistic which students of two
backgrounds are brought together to receive part of
their instruction in each of the two languages
(Tucker and Crandall, 1985, 1989;
Campbell, Gray, Rhodes and Snow, 1985).
Integrated language and content programs can be found
secondary, and tertiary levels in the United in the elementary,
States. These programs may be the
purview of the language teacher, the content teacher,
based language program, the language teacher or both. In a content-
(usually with assistance from a
colleague who teaches another content
science teacher, or social studies teacher)area; for example: a math teacher,
which uses concepts, texts, and tasks from thedevelops a special language class
guage. The class might be a Math/ESL course which content area to teach the lan-
teaches the English lan-
guage skills required for mathematical problem solving
taught through the medium of French of Spanish.
or a history course
students to acquire academic language skills in that Both of these seek to enable
which the language teacher is responsible for language, but the degree to
the actual subject matter instruc-
tion varies from only providing skills to enable
another content course to actually providing the the students to participate in
Crandall and Christian, content instruction (Short,
1989; Crandall, Spanos, Christian, Simich-Dudgcon
Willetts, 1987). and
Conversely, subject matter teachers (often with the
guage teacher) may adapt their instruction to accommodate assistance of thc lan-
language proficiency in their classes. These classes, different levels of
English or language sensitive content classes, known variously as sheltered
are
schools in which language minority students constitute increasingly provided in
the language teacher acts as a resource to other a large population. Here
teachers, helping them to in-
crease the means by which linguistically different students
ic concepts and skills. These techniques might can learn the academ-
tions, visuals and or other objects to establish include 'he use of demonstra-
and communication activities in the classroom
meaning; the use of interaction
to enable students to communi-
cate effectively in the register or language of the subject
of adapted or simplified arca; and often the use
texts and materials (Short, Crandall
Crandall, Spanos, Christian, Simich-Dudgeon and Willetts, and Christian, 1989;
1987).
Sonic programs have parallel instructional designs, sometimes
as paired or adjunct courses (Snow and Brinton, 1988). referred to
ceive instruction from two teachers, a language teacher
In these, students re-
who may focus on the
reading or writing skills required for a history
history or psychology instructor focuses or psychology course, while the
on concept development. These paired
programs arc often found at the tertiary level.
An example of a program which uses all three approaches,
with integrated
insti uction offered by the language teacher, thc
content teacher, and in parallel

86
 INUMM
courses, is the program provided by CAL to Honduran students in Tegucigalpa
preparing for university study in the United States. In that program, math and
sciehce classes are taught by bilingual instructors, who integrate progressively
more English language in their instruction during the three trimesters, begin-
ning with Spanish medium textbooks and instruction and then switch to shel-
tered English instruction, ending with English as the medium for texts and
instruction. At the same time, English teachers are introducing progressively
more content into their instruction, using both content-based and parallel
instruction. The program is particularly fortunate to have one science instruc-
tor who is also a qualified English language instructor, but the majority of the
program design has emerged from cooperation across the disciplines.
At the elementary level, a two-way bilingual or interlocking immersion
model may be employed, whereby students from two different language and
ethnic groups are brought together in one class to receive some of their aca-
demic instruction in one language and the remainder in the other. In these
programs, all instruction must be sheltered or integrated with language devel-
opment, since at any time at least some of the students in the class will not be
proficient in the language of instruction. (For more information on these and
other foreign language models, see Tucker and Crandall, 1989.)

ATTRIBUTES OF A CONTENT-BASED
INSTRUCTIONAL, PROGRAM
Regardless of program design, the following eight attributes are characteris-
tic of a content-based instructional program. (For a fuller discussion, see Snow,
Met, and Genesce, 1989; Short, Crandall and Christian, 1988; Cuevas, 1984).

1. Instructional objectives are drawn from language, acadcmic content, and

thinking or study skills, usually at the intersection of these. A language
teacher might focus on the ways in which addition is signalled in mathemat-
ics or algebraic word problems--for example, through the sum of, plus, and,
increased by or in addition to,--and help students to use this language in
paircd, small group, or cooperative learning activities which promote inter-
action in that language. The math teacher, on the other hand, might focus
on strategies for setting up and solving these problems, while noting the
special language in which these problems are embedded. Both would di-
rectly or indirectly involve thinking skills of analysis and classification. (See
Crandall, Dale, Rhodes and Spanos, in press and Spanos, Rhodes, Dale and
Crandall, 1987 for a fuller discussion of lexical and semantic, syntactic, and
discourse features of mathematics and algebra which pose difficulty to both
linguistically different and English-speaking students in mathematics prob-

87

.....!__.,
 lem solving.)
2. Schema or background knowledge must be developed in the language. This
is usually accomplished through oral language activities, which precede
extensive reading and writing activities, although it is possiNe to use writ-
ingespecially interactive writing such as dialogue journals or computer
networking--as a means of developing and activating schema at the same
time as academic language is being developed. Using top-down processing,
general knowledge is developed before details are addressed.
3. Both content-obligatory and content-compatible language can be included
(Snow, Met and Genesee, 1989). That is, while the teaching of magnetism
necessarily includes teaching such terms as to attract, to repel, magnetic
properties, magnetic fields and classification language and skills, it also
provides an opportunity, among others, for developing vocabulary of a
variety of items (which can be evaluated as to their magnetic properties), as
well as descriptive language and rhetorical skills concerning the patterns
iron filings make on paper when magnets are used.
4. Paired and small group interaction are used to develop and to demonstrate
proficiency in the academic language. Cooperative or collaborative learning
and peer-tutoring may be employed. Activities are specifically developed to
encourage student interaction with the content material and negotiation of
meaning. When possible, class size and conditions permitting, the teacher's
role may shift to facilitator of learning, rather than direct presenter or
lecturer of information. Although direct presentation is still necessary,
teachers may spend more time interacting with small groups of students
when they need redirection or clarification or other explanations.
5. A wide range of materials is used in the classroom. Traditionally, language
classes focused on two kinds of texts: extended discourse, such as that
found in textbooks or novels, and dialogues, such as those found in plays or
sadly, only in other language textbooks. However, broader and deeper uses
of the language require that students be able to interact with and produce a
variety of texts: maps, charts, graphs, tables, lists, lab reports, diagrams,
timelines, and other forms and documents. Authentic materials, drawn
directly from the content area, can be used, although it is often necessary to
adapt the information to make it more accessible to students with less
developed language proficiency. This does not mean that the material is
"watered down" or somehow less rich in concepts; it does require, however,
that the information be restructured so that relationships between ideas
become clearer and new vocabulary is adequately contextualized in the
early presentations while schema are being developed in that language.
Ironically, the restructuring of large amounts of connected discourse often
results in the presentation of that information in other kinds of texts such as
flow charts or taHes, exactly the kinds of texts which students need to

88 3
 master anyway. For example, in a lesson dealing with the various branches
of government, it may be more effective to draw a chart with reflects the
specific roles and responsibilities of each branch, clarifying the concepts
while developing the language needed to discuss this topic. If appropriate,
students may be asked to read a long passage in which these kieas are
presented as a later activity.
6. Multiple media and a variety of presentation techniques are used in the
classes to reduce the reliance on language as the sole means of conveying
information or demonstrating meaning. Thus, content-based language
programs or language-sensitive content programs use demonstrations, a
wide variety of audio visuals, authentic materials, objects, and even guest
speakers. For example, an elementary science class on animal classification
might benefit from a visit by a veterinarian or zookeeper who brings ani-
mals to the class and points to differences and similarities, allowing students
close observation and perhaps even touch as a means of really understand-
ing the classification system. Although oral and written language are
employed, they are supported by many other sources of information for the
students.
7. Experiential, discovery, and hands-on learning are also used to encouragc
students to develop concepts and interact with each other, placing the
language learning into relevant, meaningful frames. Experiments and
researth projects are particularly appropriate, as arc the use of games, role
plays, and simulations. When students can work together, cooperatively, in
doing experiments and presenting results, the important academic language
is learned as are the concepts.
8. Writing is included both as a means of thinking and learning and as a
means of helping students to demonstrate what they are learning. Lan-
guage experience stories, students as authors, dialogue journals, learning
logs, and other writing activities are used. Even asking students to draw
pictures or diagrams and labelling these can be helpful as can developing
stories sequences which reflect activities in which students have been
engaged. Both provide opportunities for students to develop sequencing
skills at the same time as language skills. Of particular interest is the prac-
tice of having students write their own mathematics word/story problems,
since in doing so they are demonstrating mastery of the special language in
which word problems are embedded as well as their understanding of
mathematical/scientific formulas such as that of distance = rate times time.
Writing activities can also serve as models for those which are required in
the content area: for example, lab reports, essays, and research papers may
all be introduced in the language class.

Some sample strategy sheets or lesson plans, describing lessons for students

89
 at various levels of language proficiency, are provided in Short, Crandall and
Christian, 1989; Cantoni-Harvey, 1987; Mohan, 1986, as well as in several other
texts and papers listed in the references.

A MODEL INTEGRATED CLASS

Perhaps what would be most useful here is to describe a particularly suc-
cessful high school algebra/ESL class which one of us recently observed. The 25
students in the class were all relative newcomers to the United States, having
been there no more than four years. The students were from a number of ethno-
linguistic backgrounds (about half were Hispanic, from a number of Central and
South American countries) and their English proficiency varied widely. Al-
though the classroom was very small and cramped, students sat at round tables,
with six or seven students per table. As students began to settle down, the
teacher passed out sheets with questions relating to the previous night's home-
work. Students worked in pairs, asking and answering questions about what the
problem is asking, what is already known, or how the problem might be solved as
the teacher moved about the room, providing help when necessary. Students
then volunteered to go to the board, often in pairs, to explain their answers.
Following this was a short review on solving inequalities, followed by a vocabu-
lary game in which the teacher gave a definition ("I'm thinking of a term for...")
while students working at tables sought to spell the word with letters on the
table. The teacher awarded students a point for the first right answer and
another point for spelling it correctly. (These points can later be added to
quizzes or tests to improve the scores.) A lot of discussion and negotiation was
heard as the students tried to figure out the word. After about fifteen minutes,
the teacher collected the letters and shifted to a classification activity. She put
on the board a variety of different algebraic expressions, equalities, and inequali-

, ties, without giving any information about any of these, and then asked students
to point out what kinds of similarities they could find within the many items.
Students pointed out that some are binomials or have several variables, before
they arrived at a way of classifying these into the three categories. Whenever
students offered explanations or points of similarity, the teacher would ask the
class whether others agreed or not. Students worked until they arrived at
agreement and correct answers, though the teacher did not openly label any
answer as "correct" or "incorrect." Subsequent activities included reading aloud
the various items, and copying them onto the proper place (expressions, equali-
ties, inequalities) in a chart on the board. While competition is a part of the
class in the vocabulary game, the majority of learning is cooperative, with stu-
dents who have more advanced mathematics or more proficient English skills
helping those with less. Although the teacher does some direct presentation, so

90
I0
 also do the students, providing ample opportunity for the teacher to determine
how, well the students are able to use mathematics language productively in
thinking and solving problems. There is a textbook, but the teacher has supple-

/ mented that with materials which focus attention on language and break down
problems into several steps; other "texts" such as charts are developed by the
students in their classwork. Students write out explanations and, talk them out,
as well as perform the more usual algebraic tasks of setting up and solving
problems. What is particularly important about this class is the enthusiasm and
the degree to which students are actively engaged in their education. Not sur-
prisingly, these students also experience a great deal of success. Classes taught
through an integrated language and content approach can be found throughout
this school and overall school success is also high. Some 85% of the students
who enter remain in school and graduate.
Admittedly, this is an exemplary class in an exemplary school, but classes
with various degrees of integrated instruction can be found at all levels, taught by
a wide variety of teachers, using a number of different activities and materials.
As student enthusiasm and learning from these classes increase, so does the
likelihood that more integrated instruction will occur within these classes,
spreading to other teachers and classes who learn of their colleagues' success.

IMPLEMENTING A CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL

PROGRAM

Content-based second and foreign language programs often result from

collaboration between a single language and single content teacher, then spread
to collaboration between disciplines/departments, to collaboration among
teachers in a number of departments in the institution, and even throughout a
school district. A language teacher may initiate the collaboration, seeking to
make the language instruction more relevant or more challenging to students.
However, the language teacher may also become a resource to a content teacher
who is seeking to find alternative ways of making the content accessible to a
wider variety of students. In some cases, schools may decide to integrate the
teaching of language--especially reading and writing--across the curriculum and
thus teams of language teachers and other subject matter teachers work together
to develop a more integrated program. In still others, a school district may
decide to develop integrated curricula, to enable teachers to morc effectively
integrate their instruction. One school district has developed an elementary
curriculum which takes objectives from all the content areas and integrates these
with English as a second language objectives into one curriculum.
Programs usually develop because of interested teachers, who seek to learn
from each other through classroom observations, interviews, and analyses of

91
 discussion and col-
texts, tests, and other materials. To accomplish the shared
laboration, some planning time must be provided by the administration, both
before the academic year and during it. Time is needed to plan the curriculum
and develop lesson plans, as well as to revise thes .. as they are implemented.
A key factor in program success is the support of an administrator who
provides time for joint planning, preservice and inservice training, and cur-
to ensure that
riculum development. It is also important for administrators
instruction have the same students in their classes.
teachers attempting parallel
Although this may sound obvious, more than one paired program has experi-
enced difficulty because this kind of planning had not taken place.

FUTURE INITIATIVES

Since this approach to integrating instruction is relatively recent, there are a

teacher
number of areas in which additional work is needed. Among these are
education, student assessment program evaluation, and the preparation of text-
books and other instructional materials. Additional research into the academic
also
language and specific registers of mathematics, science, or other areas is
needed.
Except for the occasional course in content-based language instruction,
such as one that one of us (Crandall) recently taught at The American University
or that was offered at the 1988 TESOL Summer Institute at Northern Arizona
University, current language teacher preservice education does not specifically
provide
address ways of integrating language and content instruction or even
adequate instruction to enable teachers to perform their own needs assessments
or analyze subject matter texts and classroom tasks for their language and cogni-
inadequately pre-
tive requirements. As a result, language teachers may feel
pared to structure and teach a content-based course.
seminars, insti-
To help provide needed education and training, a number of
educational programs have been developed for ele-
tutes, and other inservice and national
mentary, secondary, and tertiary level instructors at local, state,
levels. For example, there are summer institutes for elementary foreign lan-
and university instruc-
guage immersion teachers, as well as institutes for college
tors seeking to integrate English and math, science, or
other instruction. But
these exist in short supply and are often isolated educational activities. Only
rarely is it possible te build in peer observation and feedback or sustained coach-
ing to assist the teacher in implementing the innovation.
What is needed is a comprehensive educational pregam, inserting appro-
ongoing
priate coursework into preservice education and then providing an
program of inservice education, involving observation, discussion, demonstration,
approach.
and coaching for teachers attempting to implement this challenging

9212
Ideally, master teachers should be identified and trained to function as trainers
in their institutions, providing observation and feedback and collaborative learn-
ing.
Student assessment represents another challenge. What should be as-
sessed, and how? If a program is truly integrated, then both academic concepts
and language should be tested, but currently, few if any appropriate instruments
are available. Instead, teachers use a battery of language proficiency tests,
achievement tests which are intended to measure academic achievement in the
first language, and other informal measures. Some informal measures of
mathematics language are being developed by linguists and mathematics educa-
tors in a current project at CAL, but these are merely a beginning. What is
needed is a series of me.sures which evaluate how well a student has mastered
academic language and content in the target language, as well as tests which
separate these sufficiently to identify whether what is needed is additional atten-
tion to the language or the conceptual development. Some initial attempts in
both second and foreign languages have been made, testing language within a
content framework. In addition, a series of sample assessment items in mathe-
matics have been developed which teachers can use to measure student progress
in understanding math language and concepts. Papers describing these tests;
discussing the problems in developing appropriate measures; identifying relevant
trends in assessment of reading, mathematics, and language proficiency; and
other issues related to assessment were delivered at a recent seminar on student
assessment in integrated instruction which was held as part of the activities of the
Center for Language Education and Research at CAL (Crandall, ed, forthcom-
ing).
Program evaluation is also needed. Not surprisingly, no longitudinal evalu-
ations of content-based instructional programs have been undertaken, since
evaluating the relative efficacy of using various language methods is notoriously
complex and slippery and even more so when academic content is included.
Moreover, since these programs are relatively new, they are difficult to charac-
terize and thus to evaluate--quantitatively or qualitatively. However, if we are to
convince others of the efficacy of this approach--something many of those in-
volved in both second and foreign language instruction in the United States
firmly believethen evaluations will need to be carefully structured to provide
both formative and summative information.
Perhaps the most pressing need of all is adequate materials upon which to
base these programs. Currently, teachers or schools develop their own materi-
als, something which requires inordinate amounts of time and is inefficient. But
the development of integrated curricula and materials is very complex and
demanding, as those of us involved in the development of a new ESL series for
elementary students are discovering. Identifying gade appropriate objectives
from the various subject areas taught to elementary students and then combining

93
13
these with second language and language arts objectives, as well as the develop-
thent of thinking skills, is enormously challenging. Still, such materials are
needed if we are really to encourage more teachers to increase the academic and
cognitive load in their language teaching. Foreign language teachers have a right
to expect texts on geography, history, government, business, and culture to be
available in the languages they teach, and even to be able to set aside one part of
the current curriculum to be taught in another language, as is done in some
innovative language programs which enroll elementary immersion program
grad ua tes.
Additionally, a great deal more research is needed to describe the ways in
which language is used in math, science, and other content learning and to iden-
tify the specific lexical and semantic, syntactic, and discourse features which are
characteristic of the registers of these fields. Especially important is the analysis
of protocols of students engaged in negotiating meaning in learning these various
content areas, although classroom observations, interviews with students and
teachers, analyses of classroom discourse, texts, and tests are important as well.
Using these various methods, several colleagues at CAL have been investigating
the ways in which students develop and use math language in their mathematics
and algebra learning, with special attention to places in which the language
serves as a barrier to effective problem solving (Spanos, Rhodes, Dale and
Crandall, 1988). Some intitial research in secondary biology and physical
science classes has also been undertaken. These, and comparable work by Dawe
(1984), Mohan (1986), and others are providing a much better research base
upon which to develop classroom activities and curricula, but additional research
of this type is sorely needed.
In the meantime, the number of innovative programs of integrated language
and content instruction is increasing in both second and foreign languages, at
elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Additional research, teacher educa-
tion, materials and test development, and program evaluation can only serve to
strengthen what has emergel as an exciting instructional approach.

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