Early Childhood Educ J (2016) 44:307–316

DOI 10.1007/s10643-015-0712-7

Evidence-Based Strategies for Fostering Biliteracy in Any

Classroom
Anne Delbridge1 • Lori A. Helman1

Published online: 29 May 2015

 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract A substantial percentage of students in U.S. Bilingual school programs are generally recognized as
schools speak languages other than English at home, yet being the ideal environment for biliteracy development to
very few are enrolled in educational contexts that seek to occur, yet bilingual programs are few and far between in
develop their bilingual and biliterate skills and identities, many states and most bilingual programs do not extend
despite the fact that research continues to show the im- beyond the early elementary years. Even in classrooms
portance of creating space for bilingual and biliterate where instruction occurs exclusively in English and the
practices in the classroom in order for students to progress teacher is monolingual, however, teachers can create an
academically. This paper explores the literature on bilit- environment in which biliteracy development is supported.
eracy development with a focus on Spanish/English bilin- They can intentionally make space for minority language
gual students in the early elementary grades. Several use and provide texts in languages other than English, and
classroom activities are then presented that have been plan activities that validate and include bilingual and
found by educational researchers to be effective in foster- biliterate perspectives and practices (Reyes 2012, 2012;
ing biliteracy development in emergent bilinguals and that Gutiérrez et al. 2011; Manyak 2001; Au 1995). The aim of
can be implemented in any classroom by bilingual or this paper is to make the bridge between theory and prac-
monolingual teachers. The potential for such activities to tice by presenting several classroom activities that have
foster positive biliterate identities and expand bilingual been found by researchers to be successful in fostering
students’ future options are discussed. biliteracy development and that can be implemented in any
primary grade classroom. We begin with a review of some
Keywords Biliteracy
Emergent bilingual
English relevant research that focuses on biliteracy development
learner
Latino
Literature
Vocabulary for young Spanish/English bilingual students in the early
elementary grades in U.S. schools and discuss why bilit-
eracy development is so important for bilingual children,
Introduction even those enrolled in English instructional programs (see
Table 1).
Biliteracy is fostered when bilingual children have the
opportunity to engage in literacy practices in both their
languages in the classroom rather than being subjected to Some Background on Biliteracy
an English-only educational setting (Reyes 2012).
There are approximately 5.1 million emergent bilingual
students nationwide with the large majority (79 %)
& Anne Delbridge speaking Spanish as a home language (Payán and Nettles
[email protected] 2008). The term emergent bilingual highlights the fact that
1 these students bring a home language with them to school,
Minnesota Center for Reading Research, University of
Minnesota, 175 Peik Hall, 159 Pillsbury Dr. SE, Minneapolis, where they develop their bilingualism as they add a new
MN 55455, USA language to their linguistic repertoire (Garcı́a et al. 2008).

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Table 1 Fast facts on multilingualism

• Approximately 21 % of the U.S. population 5 years and older speaks a language other than English (U.S. Census Bureau 2013b)
• Between 1997 and 2008 there was a significant decline in the percentage of elementary and middle schools in the U.S. that offered foreign
language instruction. Elementary school percentages went from 31 to 25 %, and middle schools from 75 to 58 % (Rhodes and Pufahl 2009)
• In a recent survey the top ten multilingual cities in the U.S. have been noted as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco,
Houston, Dallas, San Diego, Boston, San Jose, and San Antonio (Echevarrı́a 2010)

Despite possessing the potential for bilingualism and bearing on how teachers promote early biliteracy devel-
biliteracy, Mexican immigrants who arrive in the U.S. to- opment among young children in their classrooms. Psy-
day can expect only 5 out of 100 of their great grandchil- cholinguistic or cognitively oriented studies in biliteracy
dren to speak fluent Spanish (Rumbaut et al. 2006). Despite often focus on measuring basic discrete literacy skills in
the fact that the cognitive and social advantages of bilin- each language with the goal of determining which skills in
gualism are well documented, laws continue to be passed a child’s native language will transfer to English (e.g.
that exclude minority languages from the classroom, to the Lindsey et al. 2003; Jared et al. 2011; Durgunoglu 1998).
detriment of millions of students. While bilingualism is a Several studies in this area have found that certain early
much-sought skill in both the national and global job reading skills in a child’s home language transfer over to
markets, bilingual children in the U.S. are usually deprived the L2 (such as phonological awareness), and that some L1
of instruction that would enable them to maintain and de- (Spanish) reading skills are indeed predictive of later L2
velop their bilingual and biliterate abilities. It is estimated (English) reading abilities. These studies usually maintain
that about 87 % of Spanish speakers are enrolled in Eng- the ultimate goal of high achievement in English literacy,
lish-only school settings (August and Shanahan 2006) with little focus on long-term literacy development in the
where development or maintenance of literacy skills in home language. However, they also provide some em-
Spanish are usually not considered. That said, Reyes (2012) pirical support for early biliteracy development by em-
found evidence of biliteracy development in her study phasizing the importance of assessing and developing early
where teachers and students were bilingual, yet the school literacy skills in a child’s home language whenever
curriculum was entirely in English. She termed what was possible.
occurring ‘‘spontaneous biliteracy,’’ where students and Sociolinguistic and sociocultural studies have shown
teachers took advantage of their language and literacy that children become sensitive very early on to language
skills in both languages for learning, despite curricular ideologies that affect their language choices and literacy
restrictions. In addition, Soto (2010) found that students behaviors in the classroom (Morren López 2011; Martı́nez-
who had been enrolled in bilingual programs that were then Roldán and Malave 2004). Martı́nez-Roldán and Malave
shut down by the school district continued to use and de- (2004) found that first graders in their study were aware of
velop their biliteracy skills in spontaneous ways in their their parents’ feelings about Spanish and English use in
daily lives. The students had already developed strong various contexts and that these ideologies affected their
identities as bilinguals, and so chose to use their biliteracy behavior during literacy instruction. Bilingual students may
skills even when they no longer received literacy instruc- feel that their stories and responses are restricted by an
tion in Spanish in school. For these students, ‘‘in bilingual English-only environment even if they are proficient in this
contexts, using bilingualism and biliteracy is part and language (Medina 2010; Martı́nez-Roldán 2003). Reyes
parcel of who they are, of their world, and of their learning (2012) found that making space in the classroom for
process’’ (Reyes 2012, 253). As long as students have ac- bilingualism, biliteracy, and translanguaging practices was
cess to texts in both languages in the classroom and are crucial for the students in her study to progress aca-
supported in using both their languages for learning, demically. Beyond language use, she also notes that,
biliteracy development can occur. However, because ‘‘cultural affirmation is a key ingredient to academic suc-
biliteracy development has not been prioritized on the cess’’ (p. 253). Maintaining a classroom environment in
national educational agenda, there is still somewhat limited which bilingualism and biliteracy are valued and validated
research in this area. supports student engagement in practices that promote
Reyes (2012) provides a thorough review of biliteracy biliteracy development.
research to date. She notes that studies of biliteracy usually When the social, cultural, and emotional aspects of be-
draw from either psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic theo- ing or becoming biliterate are considered, we find that
retical foundations. Both types of studies have direct identity formation is a key component of biliteracy

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development. Several studies have found that classroom classroom teacher was prohibited by state and district
literacy practices affect identity formation, and vice versa mandates from using Spanish during instruction, her stu-
(Jiménez 2000; Martı́nez-Roldán and Malave 2004; dents (who were all Spanish/English bilinguals) engaged in
McCarthey and Moje 2002). As all teachers know, when biliteracy development during a daily literacy activity
students cannot ‘‘find themselves’’ in the classroom, aca- called ‘‘The Daily News.’’ Each day one student was se-
demic achievement becomes difficult. Bilingual students lected to share personal news with two other student ‘‘re-
may feel that they are in a cultural and linguistic Border- porters’’ who would interview the news-giver and
lands, not necessarily belonging in one world but also not transcribe a news report to be shared with the whole class.
quite of the other (Anzaldúa 1987). Luis Moll and col- In this space students were not restricted with regards to
leagues have researched extensively the importance of in- language use, and so shifted fluidly between Spanish and
cluding Latino family and community funds of knowledge English, using all of their resources to form a coherent
in the classroom curriculum to increase student learning. piece of writing that was then shared and edited with the
Moll and González (1994) note the importance of re- entire class. Manyak found that during this activity the
membering that bilingual children have the potential to students not only drew on all of their collective literary
access social, cultural, and literate resources in two lan- resources in both languages but also took on positive
guages for learning. Students may formulate questions in identities as capable writers. Students collaborated with
Spanish and read to answer them in English, they may ask each other across languages and took on roles of expert and
questions of community members in English and write novice in a fluid manner during Daily News interviews,
notes in Spanish to then present findings to the class in allowing space for students of varying proficiency in each
English, and so on (Moll and González 1994). When stu- language to showcase their abilities. Although students in
dents and teachers can create a ‘‘third-space’’ in the the study received literacy instruction in English only,
classroom that allows for a fusion of home and school many students demonstrated knowledge of Spanish literacy
literacies, students can feel that both are legitimate forms skills (such as Spanish letter names) that they shared with
of knowing; this supports students in beginning to construct their peers. They also used writing strategies learned during
positive identities that are also not static (Gutiérrez et al. English literacy instruction such as ‘‘sounding it out’’ to
1999; Moje et al. 2004). help them transcribe classmates’ thoughts expressed in
Students’ identity constructions as multiple, hybrid, and Spanish. Students demonstrated that they were developing
fluid play a strong role in their linguistic and literacy de- important skills of metalinguistic awareness when con-
velopment. However, individual identities are also con- stantly confronted with choices regarding language use
stricted by larger societal dynamics of power. Guerra (oral and written). Groups adjusted their language use to
(2007) calls for a sociocultural theory of literacy that accommodate all children’s varying levels of proficiency
‘‘acknowledges hybridity in identities and in cultural across languages and modalities.
practices, even as it acknowledges how individuals are During the Daily News students experienced validation
apprenticed into the dominant social practices of their and inclusion of home experiences in the school curricu-
groups.’’ (p. 138). Teachers must be aware of issues of lum. This activity was instrumental in bridging the home-
power and oppression in our society and how Latino stu- school gap and creating a space of hybridity that
dents may encounter those factors both in their daily lives
and as they seek to become biliterate.
Following are several instructional activities that can be
used even in classrooms where teachers do not deliver
bilingual instruction but where students are emergent bilin-
guals. These practices support biliteracy development by
encouraging students to use both their languages, by drawing
on home literacy practices, and by fostering the development
of positive biliterate and bicultural identities early on.

Classroom Activities to Foster Biliteracy

Collaborative Writing of Life Events

This activity comes from Manyak’s (2001) study of a first

and second grade English immersion class. Although the Fig. 1 A young student writing in Spanish and English

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encouraged participation. The collaborative writing and literacies in other languages that were previously excluded
sharing of home experiences during the Daily News opened from the curriculum. This type of project could be ex-
up many more opportunities for participation (and there- panded to include specific themes of identity in higher
fore, learning) during literacy instruction. Even in class- grades. It could also incorporate multimedia components
rooms where not all children are bilingual, same-language such as voice recording and digital artwork.
pairs can engage in the Daily News interview process.
News reports could be written first in the home language Vocabulary Bridges
and subsequently translated into English to be shared with
the whole class (see Fig. 1). Emergent bilinguals bring unique capabilities to learning
new words in English. Their developing vocabularies are
Authoring Dual Language Texts distributed across Spanish and English and the links to the
underlying concepts represented by the words may vary
Researchers often point to the fact that we have entered an depending on how deeply the concept has been reinforced
era of globalization and transnationalism in which students in the students’ experiences and where they are develop-
maintain lives across multiple borders, geographic and mentally in learning the new language (Bedore et al. 2010).
otherwise (Medina 2010; Mitchell 2000 as cited in Taylor Learning new vocabulary is critical for academic success at
et al. 2008). Taylor et al. (2008) assert that we must ‘‘re- school, and is most likely when students have repeated
frame identity and literacy as transnational trajectories exposures to important words in meaningful contexts, and
rather than static inventories of traits and capacities’’ (p. are guided to make connections across languages. There
271). The literacies that children foster may shift and are a number of ways that bridges can be constructed in the
evolve with time and may allow or deny them access to classroom to connect students’ home and school languages,
various communities across spaces. Taylor and colleagues and to encourage them to develop a multilingual word
assert that including dual language texts and family consciousness (Templeton et al. 2015). Many of these
knowledge in the curriculum is crucial for both biliteracy strategies involve focusing on cognates, or words that have
(or multi-literacy) and identity development. Although this similar spellings and meanings across languages, or help-
project is taken from a study (Taylor et al. 2008) that took ing students cluster related words into thematic groups.
place in a Canadian classroom where students came from Cognates such as lámpara/lamp in Spanish and English
multiple language backgrounds (most were not Spanish facilitate emergent bilinguals’ access to words in English
speakers), the idea of moving beyond a monolingual that are related to words they already know in Spanish or
pedagogy to include family stories and literacies through vice versa (Genesee et al. 2005). Research points out,
the writing of dual language books is definitely applicable however, that cognate recognition does not happen auto-
elsewhere. In this study, kindergarten students wrote matically (Jiménez 1997). For this reason teachers should
identity texts in two (or more) languages with support from explicitly highlight connections between cognate pairs
their teachers and families. Students participated in initial such as by writing the words side-by-side and discussing
brainstorming activities in which they were asked ques- them, posting bilingual word walls, or creating bilingual
tions about themselves. They then dictated their stories in picture dictionaries for students to reference. Calling on the
English to a teacher or researcher and the stories were sent bilingual expertise of individual students can greatly sup-
home for parents to translate into the home language and port the biliteracy of the whole class, even when the tea-
elaborate upon (via text and photograph). Students’ bilin- cher only speaks English.
gual books were then illustrated and bound and were also Because learning words one at a time can be a laborious
scanned so that electronic copies could be shared with process, it is also helpful for students to connect new words
relatives in home countries and other locations. to bigger ideas. For example, when studying about the
Through the dual language book project, focal par- weather students might cluster words that describe weather
ticipants’ parents learned not to position themselves as events such as rain, snow, wind, or lightning on a vo-
‘‘deficient bilinguals,’’ but to seek out resources in their cabulary chart with pictures (see Fig. 2). Words the stu-
home language to share with their children and promote dents know in their home language can be added and
home language literacy skills. Collaboration also occurred compared. If a theme is explored that introduces vo-
intergenerationally, with grandparents contributing valu- cabulary that is new to the students, they should be en-
able heritage knowledge to the books and parents appre- couraged to share the ideas with their families in the home
ciating the chance to revitalize literacy skills in their first language. Fortifying the home language in this way will aid
languages. In addition, books became ‘‘affirming identity in deeper concept development across both languages
texts’’ for the students and bestowed prestige upon (Bedore et al. 2010).

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as having reading difficulty by the school districts were in

fact reading at grade level in Spanish.
High quality pre-literacy and early literacy assessments
in Spanish are increasingly available and can provide
teachers with valuable information about their students’
literacy development in the primary grades. Martı́nez-
Roldán and Sayer (2006) found that bilingual students in
their study frequently gave more complete retellings in
Spanish even if the text they read was in English. Reyes
(2012) found that one of her case study students refused to
speak, read or write in English because he was afraid that if
he lost his Spanish abilities he would no longer be able to
communicate with his grandfather. This young student
demonstrated command of curricular content (that was
delivered in English) through Spanish writing. While it
would not be possible for monolingual teachers to allow
students to complete all assignments in a language they did
not understand, these examples illustrate that including
assessment data conducted in a student’s native language is
critical in order for teachers to have a more accurate idea of
what their students are capable of, especially when making
high stakes decisions that can influence a child’s educa-
tional experience and trajectory in significant ways.

Considering Identity During Reading

Fig. 2 A content-specific bilingual vocabulary chart Culturally relevant pedagogies recognize biliteracy as a
viable and valuable goal and seek to engage students in
culturally affirming practices in the classroom that support
Assessing Students in Spanish as Well as English biliteracy development. Including culturally relevant chil-
dren’s literature in the classroom can be one such affirming
Students who enter school with native language literacy practice (Desai 1997; Naidoo 2011). Rosenblatt (1978) and
skills or those who receive native language literacy in- others postulate that when readers connect with texts per-
struction deserve the opportunity to demonstrate what they sonally, it affects their construction of identity and can
know when it is assessment time. While there are still no open up new worlds of possibility. When students are able
assessments of biliteracy as a construct in and of itself, it is to identify with characters and ‘‘see themselves’’ repre-
often feasible for teachers to assess key skills in English sented in stories, higher engagement occurs (Naidoo 2011;
and Spanish and to give equal weight to skills developed in Galda 1998; Athanases 1998). Students may also feel
each language. As part of Escamilla and colleagues’ Lit- alienated or develop a stance of resistance towards stories
eracy Squared project (Escamilla et al. 2010), students who that run contrary to their cultural models (Beach 1997).
receive literacy instruction in both languages are assessed Lohfink and Loya (2010) analyzed Latino students’ written
in Spanish and English reading and writing each year and oral responses before, during and after culturally
throughout elementary school. Hopewell and Escamilla relevant text read alouds. They found that the elements
(2014) analyzed this assessment data for third grade students chose to connect to in their responses were rele-
bilingual students in two urban school districts in Colorado vant to the children’s lived cultural experiences. In a study
using a lens of holistic bilingualism (rather than parallel by Martı́nez-Roldán and Malave (2004), they found that
monolingualism), and found that students’ scores changed engaging with literature depicting issues of language and
significantly. Using adjusted cut scores that represent sat- bilingualism provided a way for first grade students to
isfactory progress in a bilingual student who is developing confront issues of language learning and help them develop
literacy in two languages, they found that the percentage of positive linguistic identities as bilinguals. When bilingual
students labeled ‘‘at risk’’ in reading decreased dra- students are exposed to high quality children’s literature
matically. In addition, many students who were identified that reflects their own lived experiences, they are more

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likely to form positive linguistic and cultural identities that the ‘‘images or storylines or descriptions of simplified
pave the path to biliteracy. worlds in which prototypical events unfold. They are our
‘first thoughts’ or taken-for-granted assumptions about
Choosing the Right Books what is ‘typical’ or ‘normal’’’ (59). Chappell and Faltis
(2007) analyzed children’s books featuring Spanish-
Finding high quality children’s literature that portrays speaking children protagonists and identified different
Spanish-speaking characters in an authentic, respectful and storylines or themes relating to the protagonists’ con-
equitable way is, unfortunately, no easy task. In fact, there struction of cultural identity. Many books presented the
are very few children’s books that feature Latino/a pro- diglossic notion that Spanish and English should not be
tagonists, despite the fact that 23 % of students enrolled in mixed. That is, educated (intelligent) bilingual children
U.S. public schools in grades K-12 identify as Hispanic should use Spanish at home and English at school. In ad-
(U.S. Census Bureau 2013a). Books that do portray Latino dition, several books presented a cultural model wherein
characters may also do so in unspecific or stereotyped immigrants lose their language and culture during the
ways. Nilsson (2005) reviewed 21 studies on the portrayal normal process of assimilation into American culture.
of Hispanic characters in children’s literature between These books conveyed the message that children must give
1966 and 2003. All of the studies she reviewed reported up their parents’ language in order to achieve success.
finding high incidences of stereotyped Hispanic characters In addition to making culturally affirming books avail-
in terms of living situation (ghetto/lower class neighbor- able in the classroom, students can also bring Spanish or
hoods), employment (blue collar), and gender (male- bilingual books home to read with their parents and other
dominant/machista stereotype). While some books may family members. Hancock (2002) found that Spanish-
seem to be ‘‘multicultural’’ because protagonists are non- speaking kindergarten students who took Spanish story-
white, teachers and students must read with a critical eye books home to read with their parents performed sig-
towards cultural authenticity and representation. nificantly better on a Spanish pre-literacy skills test and
Besides the presence of Latino/a characters, the use of equally well on an English pre-literacy skills test as
the Spanish language also plays an important role in kindergarteners from the same demographic group who
whether a book ‘‘rings true’’ to Latino/a students and is took books home in English. Table 2 presents some helpful
culturally affirming (Barrera and Quiroa 2003). Using resources for locating high quality Latino children’s books.
bilingual books or books that incorporate Spanish terms or
phrases in the classroom can be an effective way to engage Literature Discussion
Spanish speaking children in enjoyment of literature and to
help them feel that their language and culture are repre- Themes of racial, cultural, and linguistic complexity will
sented in text and therefore included in the school cur- undoubtedly arise when students read culturally rich and
riculum. However, sometimes Spanish is used in children’s diverse texts, and they must have a forum in which to
books in ways that are not culturally sensitive and can process and discuss these important issues. Students can
leave students feeling at best confused and at worst have the opportunity to offer their personal responses and
marginalized and offended. This type of Spanish can be to discuss important themes in a supportive and respectful
found in the popular Skippyjon Jones picture book series. environment during literature discussions. Thoughtful and
In her analysis of Skippyjon Jones in the Doghouse, Mar- open discussion of culturally diverse texts can create a
tı́nez-Roldán (2013) found that the author (intentionally or classroom climate where other (minority) stories and points
not) uses Mock Spanish to disparage and stereotype Latino of view are valued and included and issues of social justice
culture and Spanish language. Mock Spanish (or Junk are explored. Fostering an atmosphere in which this type of
Spanish) is an exaggeratedly Anglicized way of speaking dynamic discussion can occur means that students will also
Spanish that is ‘‘a way that Anglos in the United States can develop skills of arguing and standing up for their point of
use light talk and joking to reproduce the subordinate view and being comfortable with disagreement. These
identity of Mexican–Americans’’ (Hill 1995, 198). Martı́- discussions also provide a site for individual identity con-
nez-Roldán juxtaposes the way the characters in Skippyjon struction, performance, and negotiation (Enciso 1994).
Jones use Spanish to portray a negative image of Mexican– Martı́nez-Roldán and López-Robertson have been at the
Americans with other books that use Spanish language play forefront of the study of what happens when primary grade
in a way that is authentic and culturally respectful, such as Spanish-speaking students engage with Latino/a children’s
the Chato books by Gary Soto. literature in the classroom. These researchers conducted a
Children’s books also contain cultural models embedded series of studies revolving around the implementation of
in their storylines that affect how children see their place in literature circles in López-Robertson’s first grade bilingual
the world. According to Gee (1999), cultural models are classroom. The impetus for the first study, Martı́nez-

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Table 2 Sample of online and print resources for identifying high-quality Latino children’s literature
• Américas Book Award
‘‘The Américas Award is given in recognition of U.S. works of fiction, poetry, folklore, or selected non-fiction (from picture books to works
for young adults) published in the previous year in English or Spanish that authentically and engagingly portray Latin America, the
Caribbean, or Latinos in the United States.’’ (http://www4.uwm.edu/clacs/aa/)
• Pura Belpré Award
‘‘The Pura Belpré Award, established in 1996, is presented annually to a Latino/Latina writer and illustrator whose work best portrays,
affirms, and celebrates the Latino cultural experience in an outstanding work of literature for children and youth.’’ (http://www.ala.org/alsc/
awardsgrants/bookmedia/belpremedal)
• Tomás Rivera Award
‘‘This award is given annually to the author/illustrator of the most distinguished book for children and young adults that authentically reflects
the lives and experiences of Mexican Americans in the United States.’’ (http://riverabookaward.org/)
• ¡Imagı́nense libros!
‘‘¡Imagı́nense libros! is a virtual evaluation collection of Latino children’s and young adult literature designed to help librarians, educators,
and parents choose high-quality books authentically representing the Latino cultures. Resources related to Latino/a authors and illustrators
are provided in addition to other topics related to Latino children’s literature.’’ (http://imaginenselibros.blogspot.com)
• Ada (2003)
This book presents teachers with concrete examples for how to use children’s literature in their classrooms with the goals of transformative
education in mind. Ada reviews the history of Latino literature in the U.S. and the importance of using such literature in the classroom
before presenting classroom techniques and activities that use books in English and Spanish in order to accomplish such things as opening
creative dialogue, promoting language development, and increasing family-school connections (to name a few). She also includes a
bibliography of books by Latino authors and illustrators by genre
• Naidoo (2011)
This book contains contributions from award-winning Latino children’s authors as well as prominent educators, librarians and researchers. It
presents an overview of the history of Latino literature in the U. S., as well as a powerful discussion of the importance of using Latino
literature in the classroom. The book also contains a bibliography of recommended children’s literature by genre and professional resources

Roldán and López-Robertson (1999), came from a survey create an environment in which all responses and stories
conducted by the first author in which many bilingual are welcome and in which disagreement and other points of
elementary school teachers reported that their students view are encouraged. They can also guide the discussion
were ‘‘too young’’ to have critical discussions about lit- towards issues of relevance and step in when students
erature and that they needed to learn to decode first. The flounder or if minority points of view are marginalized by
survey results left the general impression of very low ex- the majority. In another study of small group multicultural
pectations for bilingual students, especially when it came literature discussions, Martı́nez-Roldán (2003) found that
to reading literature. The authors initiated the literature the focal student offered personal narratives only when the
circles with the expectation that students would engage in other students in the group were also Spanish-dominant
critical discussions and in-depth dialogue about the books. bilinguals. Whether consciously or not, this second grader
They selected bilingual books that reflected the students’ was already aware that her point of view was more wel-
culture in a positive way, books that were well written, and comed in some situations than others due to her linguistic
books with which they felt the students would connect, and cultural background. Creating space in the classroom
without taking into consideration individual reading levels. for literature discussion that supports positive identity
They read the books out loud to the students before the construction as well as biliteracy development for bilingual
students met to read and discuss in small groups. They students requires thoughtful planning on the part of the
found that the students were able to discuss complex issues teacher, but it is well worth the effort.
such as illegal immigration, deportation, and racial differ-
ence. They also paid close attention to the illustrations as Family Literacy Nights
well as the text, using the pictures to validate their opinions
or to prompt a new topic of discussion. The students con- Rodrı́guez-Valls (2011) implemented a cooperative parent–
nected strongly with the texts, telling personal stories to child reading program at an elementary school in southern
explain themselves and make meaning collectively of the California with the explicit goal of supporting biliteracy
stories. development regardless of whether students were enrolled
The role of the teacher in multicultural literature dis- in bilingual or English immersion classrooms. Latino/a
cussion should not be underemphasized. Teachers can parents and their first graders attended a series of family

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literacy nights where they read bilingual books busy families to make time in their schedules to attend), yet
dialogically. The school used grant money to purchase the impact on students was immense.
copies of seven bilingual children’s books for each of the
100 participating families. By strengthening connections
between Spanish and English reading practices, parents in Conclusion
the program felt empowered to be more involved in their
children’s literacy education. The books provided oppor- Many students bring multilingual strengths to school with
tunities for students and families to explore issues that were them although they often enter classrooms where their
important to them as bilinguals in this country. During each language capabilities are not acknowledged. To use a re-
family literacy night, families first participated in a picture lated comparison, in many classrooms students may out-
walk of the new book led by the researcher. Next, parents know their teachers in the technology arena even in the
read up to a certain point in the story with their children, primary grades. Students bring to school a seemingly in-
using dialogic reading practices and asking critical ques- nate ability to negotiate tablets, computers, iPods and cell
tions. During this part of the activity they were also en- phones. They adapt seamlessly to the SmartBoard while
couraged to find unknown words in the text and try to some very capable teachers may never feel entirely com-
determine the meaning or provide a translation. After the fortable using all the new technology at their disposal for
family reading there was time for families to share their student learning. Competent teachers do what they can to
thoughts about the book and the reading process with the put technology in the hands of their students and show
whole group. Finally, ‘‘homework’’ was assigned. Home- them how to use it for meaningful learning tasks, even if
work usually consisted of finishing the book together and they are not entirely comfortable manipulating it them-
then creating a small vocabulary book, a book of English/ selves. They do this because they know that the skills
Spanish cognates, or another assignment to demonstrate students develop as a result will serve them well in the
understanding of the book’s message. These homework future.
assignments were turned into the students’ teachers and In a similar vein, teachers in many schools who are not
some work was displayed on bulletin boards at the school. bilingual realize that perhaps the majority of their students
By fostering a biliteracy environment even for the stu- are. These students feel comfortable negotiating different
dents enrolled in the English immersion program, parents situations in different languages, and even meshing the
felt that they could use their Spanish skills to assist their two. They come into kindergarten with enormous potential,
children with their schooling. One mother said, ‘‘Nunca already possessing the prerequisite skills for full biliterate
pensé que mi conocimiento podı́a ayudar a mi hijo’’ (I development. Teachers of these students can contribute
never thought that my knowledge could help my son) significantly to the maintenance and development of their
(Rodrı́guez-Valls 2011, 30). Students’ scores on the state students’ biliterate abilities, even if it means allowing the
English proficiency test in speaking, reading, and writing students to lead the way. As we have seen here, teachers
also increased dramatically after the implementation of the are not alone in this—they can draw on valuable family and
parent reading nights, and second grade students received community resources to support them and their students.
the highest scores in the district on the state language arts They can emphasize the value of bilingualism and help
test (in English) during the second year of implementation their students develop positive identities as dual language
of the family reading program. Although Rodrı́guez-Valls readers and writers. Through activities like the ones re-
does not claim that the increase in scores was due solely to viewed here, they can put tools in the hands of students and
the implementation of the family reading program, it is point the way towards using those tools for meaningful
definitely plausible that the increased level of parent in- learning and literacy practices. By nourishing the seed of
volvement contributed to higher student achievement. In biliteracy, teachers can help students take advantage of
addition, students reported feeling more relaxed and con- valuable skills they bring that will bear fruit for them now
fident while taking the state tests after participating in the and in the future.
program.
Alerting parents to the potential of transferring skills
between languages can provide an empowering opportunity
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