A Level Physics Notes

AS Physics
Unit 1
Unit 2
Particles, Quantum Phenomena and

Electricity
Mechanics, Materials and Waves
1 Constituents of the Atom

2 Particles and Antiparticles
3 Quarks
4 Hadrons
5 Leptons
6 Forces and Exchange Particles
7 The Strong Interaction
8 The Weak Interaction
9 Feynman Diagrams
10 The Photoelectric Effect
11 Excitation, Ionisation and Energy Levels
12 Wave Particle Duality
13 QVIRt
14 Ohms Law and I-V Graphs
15 Resistivity and Superconductivity
16 Series and Parallel Circuits
17 Energy and Power
18 EMF and Internal Resistance
19 Kirchhoff and Potential Dividers
20 Alternating Current
21 The Oscilloscope
1 Scalars and Vectors

2 Resolving Vectors
3 Moments
4 Velocity and Acceleration
5 Motion Graphs
6 Equations of Motion
7 Terminal Velocity and Projectiles
8 Newtons Laws
9 Work, Energy and Power
10 Conservation of Energy
11 Hookes Law
12 Stress and Strain
13 Bulk Properties of Solids
14 Youngs Modulus
15 Progressive Waves
16 Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
17 Superposition and Standing Waves
18 Refraction
19 Total Internal Reflection
20 Interference
21 Diffraction
Unit 1
Lesson 1
Learning
Outcomes
Constituents of the Atom

To be know the constituents of the atom with their masses and charges
To be able to calculate the specific charge of the constituents
To be able to explain what isotopes and ions are
N. DWYER
The Nuclear Model
(Also seen in GCSE
Constitue
Charge
Mass (kg)
Physics 1 and 2)
nt
(C)
-19
We know from Rutherfords experiment that the
Proton
1.6 x 10
1.673 x
structure of an atom consists of positively
10-27
charged protons and neutral neutrons in one
Neutron
0
1.675 x
place called the nucleus. The nucleus sits in the
10-27
middle of the atom and has negatively charged
Electron
- 1.6 x 10
9.1 x 10-31
19
electrons orbiting it. At GCSE we used charges
and masses for the constituents relative to each
other, the table above shows the actual charges and masses.
Almost all of the mass of the atom is in the tiny nucleus which takes up practically no
space when compared to the size of the atom. If we shrunk the Solar System so that the
Sun was the size of a gold nucleus the furthest electron would be twice the distance to
Pluto.
If the nucleus was a full stop it would be 25 m to the first electron shell, 100 to the second
and 225 to the third.
Notation
(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

A
We can represent an atom of element X in the following way:
Z X
Z is the proton number. This is the number of protons in the nucleus. In an uncharged
atom the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons.
In Chemistry it is called the atomic number
A is the nucleon number. This is the total number of nucleons in the nucleus (protons +
neutrons) which can be written as A = Z + N.
In Chemistry it is called the atomic mass number
N is the neutron number. This is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Isotopes (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1 and 2)
Isotopes are different forms of an element. They always have the same number of protons
but have a different number of neutrons. Since they have the same number of protons
(and electrons) they behave in the same way chemically.
Chlorine If we look at Chlorine in the periodic table we see that it is represented by 3517.5 Cl .
How can it have 18.5 neutrons? It cant! There are two stable isotopes of Chlorine,
which accounts for ~75% and
amount of Chlorine atoms is
37
17
35.5
17
35
17
Cl
Cl which accounts for ~25%. So the average of a large
Cl .
Specific Charge
Specific charge is another title for the charge-mass ratio. This is a measure of the charge
per unit mass and is simply worked out by worked out by dividing the charge of a particle
by its mass.
You can think of it as a how much charge (in Coulombs) you get per kilogram of the stuff.
Constituent
Charge (C)
Mass (kg)
Charge-Mass Ratio (C kg-1) or (C/kg)
-19
-27
Proton
1.6 x 10
1.673 x 10
1.6 x 10-19 1.673 x
9.58 x 107
10-27
-27
Neutron
0
1.675 x 10
0 1.675
0
x 10-27
Electron
(-) 1.6 x 109.1 x 10-31
1.6 x 10-19 9.11 x
(-) 1.76 x
19
10-31
1011
We can see that the electron has the highest charge-mass ratio and the neutron has the
lowest.
Ions

An atom may gain or lose electrons. When this happens the atoms becomes electrically
charged (positively or negatively). We call this an ion.
If the atom gains an electron there are more negative charges than positive, so the atom
is a negative ion.
Gaining one electron would mean it has an overall charge of -1, which actually means
-1.6 x 10-19C.
Gaining two electrons would mean it has an overall charge of -2, which actually means
-3.2 x 10-19C.
If the atom loses an electron there are more positive charges than negative, so the atom
is a positive ion.
Losing one electron would mean it has an overall charge of +1, which actually means
+1.6 x 10-19C.
Losing two electrons would mean it has an overall charge of +2, which actually means
+3.2 x 10-19C.
Particles and Antiparticles
Unit 1
Lesson 2
Learning
Outcomes
To know what is the difference between particles and antiparticles

To be able to explain what annihilation is
To be able to explain what pair production is
N. DWYER
Antimatter
British Physicist Paul Dirac predicted a particle of equal mass to an electron but of
opposite charge (positive). This particle is called a positron and is the electrons
antiparticle.
Every particles has its own antiparticle. An antiparticle has the same mass as the particle
version but has opposite charge. An antiproton has a negative charge, an antielectron has
a positive charge but an antineutron is also uncharged like the particle version.
American Physicist Carl Anderson observed the positron in a cloud chamber, backing up
Diracs theory.
Anti particles have opposite Charge, Baryon Number, Lepton Number and Strangeness.
If they are made from quarks the antiparticle is made from antiquarks
Annihilation
Whenever a particle and its antiparticle meet they
annihilate each other. Annihilation is the process by which
mass is converted into energy, particle and antiparticle are
transformed into two photons of energy.
Mass and energy are interchangeable and can be converted
from one to the other. Einstein linked energy and mass with
the equation:
E mc 2
You can think of it like money; whether you have dollars or pounds you would still have
the same amount of money. So whether you have mass or energy you still have the same
amount.
The law of conservation of energy can now be referred to as the conservation of massenergy.
The total mass-energy before is equal to the total mass-energy after.
Photon
Max Planck had the idea that light could be released in chunks or packets of energy.
Einstein named these wave-packets photons. The energy carried by a photon is given by
the equation:
hc
E hf
Since c f we can also write this as: E
How is there anything at all?

When the Big Bang happened matter and antimatter was produced and sent out
expanding in all directions. A short time after this there was an imbalance in the amount
of matter and antimatter. Since there was more matter all the antimatter was annihilated
leaving matter to form protons, atoms and everything around us.
Pair Production
Pair production is the opposite process to annihilation,
energy is converted into mass. A single photon of energy is
converted into a particle-antiparticle pair. (This happens to
obey the conservation laws)
This can only happen if the photon has enough mass-energy to pay for the mass.
Let us image mass and energy as the same thing, if two particles needed 10 bits and
the photon had 8 bits there is not enough for pair production to occur.
If two particles needed 10 bits to make and the photon had 16 bits the
particle-antiparticle pair is made and the left over is converted into their
kinetic energy.
If pair production occurs in a magnetic field the particle and antiparticle will
move in circles of opposite direction but only if they are charged. (The
deflection of charges in magnetic fields will be covered in Unit 4: Force on a
Charged Particle)
Pair production can occur spontaneously but must occur near a nucleus which recoils to
help conserve momentum. It can also be made to happen by colliding particles. At CERN
protons are accelerated and fired into each other. If they have enough kinetic energy
when they collide particle-antiparticle pair may be created from the energy.
The following are examples of the reactions that have occurred:
p p p p p p
p p p pnn
p p p p
In all we can see that the conservation laws of particle physics are obeyed.
Quarks
Unit 1
Lesson 3
Learning
Outcomes
To know what quarks are and where they are found

To be able to explain how they were discovered
To know the properties of each type of quark
N. DWYER
Rutherford
Also seen in GCSE Physics 2

Rutherford fired a beam of alpha particles at a thin gold foil. If the atom had no inner
structure the alpha particles would only be deflected by very small angles. Some of the
alpha particles were scattered at large angles by the nuclei of the atoms. From this
Rutherford deduced that the atom was mostly empty space with the majority of the mass
situated in the centre. Atoms were made from smaller particles.
Smaller Scattering
In 1968 Physicists conducted a similar experiment to
Rutherfords but they fired a beam of high energy electrons at
nucleons (protons and neutrons). The results they obtained were
very similar to Rutherfords; some of the electrons were
deflected by large angles. If the nucleons had no inner structure
the electrons would only be deflected by small angles. These
results showed that protons and neutrons were made of three
smaller particles, each with a fractional charge.
Quarks
These smaller particles were named quarks and are thought to be fundamental particles
(not made of anything smaller). There are six different quarks and each one has its own
antiparticle.
We need to know about the three below as we will be looking at how larger particles are
made from different combinations of quarks and antiquarks.
Baryon
Strangen
Baryon
Strangene
Anti
Quark
Charge
Number
ess
Charge
Number
ss
Quark
(Q)
(B)
(S)
(Q)
(B)
(S)
d
-
+
0
dd
+
-
0
u
+
+
0
u
-
-
0
s
-
+
-1
sd
+
-
+1
The other three are Charm, Bottom and Top. You will not be asked about these three
Baryon
Strangene Charmnes
Quark
Charge
Bottomness
Topness
No.
ss
s
0
0
0
d
-
+
0
0
0
0
u
+
+
0
0
0
0
s
-
+
-1
c
+
+
0
+1
0
0
b
-
+
0
0
-1
0
t
+
+
0
0
0
+1
The Lone Quark?

Never! Quarks never appear on their own. The energy required to
pull two quarks apart is so massive that it is enough to make two
new particles. A quark and an antiquark are created, another
example of pair production.
A particle called a neutral pion is made from an up quark and an
antiup quark. Moving these apart creates another up quark
and an antiup quark. We now have two pairs of quarks.
Trying to separate two quarks made two more quarks.
Particle Classification
Now that we know that quarks are the smallest building
blocks we can separate all other particles into two groups,
those made from quarks and those that arent made from
quarks.
Hadrons Heavy and made from smaller particles
Leptons Light and not made from smaller particles
Hadrons
Unit 1
Lesson 4
Learning
Outcomes
To know what a hadron is and the difference between the two types
To know the properties common to all hadrons
To know the structure of the common hadrons and which is the most
stable
N. DWYER
Made from Smaller Stuf

Hadrons, the Greek for heavy are not fundamental particles they are all made from
smaller particles, quarks.
The properties of a hadron are due to the combined properties of the quarks that it is
made from.
There are two categories of Hadrons: Baryons and Mesons.
Baryons Made from three quarks
Baryon
Strangen
Baryon
Strangene
Proto
Neutr
Charge
Number
ess
Charge
Number
ss
n
on
(Q)
(B)
(S)
(Q)
(B)
(S)
u
+
+
0
d
-
+
0
u
+
+
0
u
+
+
0
d
-
+
0
d
-
+
0
p
+1
+1
0
n
0
+1
0
The proton is the only stable hadron, all others eventually decay into a proton.
Mesons Made from a quark and an antiquark
Baryon
Strangen
Baryon
Strangene
Pion
Charge
Number
ess
Pion
Charge
Number
ss
Plus
(Q)
(B)
(S)
Minus
(Q)
(B)
(S)
u
+
+
0
u
-
-
0
dd
+
-
0
d
-
+
0
+
+1
0
0
-1
0
0
Pion
Zero
u
u
0
Charge
(Q)
+
-
0
Baryon
Number
(B)
+
-
0
Strangen
ess
(S)
0
0
0
Pion
Zero
d
dd
0
Charge
(Q)
-
+
0
Baryon
Number
(B)
+
-
0
Strangene
ss
(S)
0
0
0
Kaon
Plus
u
sd
K+
Charge
(Q)
+
+
+1
Baryon
Number
(B)
+
-
0
Strangen
ess
(S)
0
+1
+1
Kaon
Minus
u
s
K-
Charge
(Q)
-
-
-1
Baryon
Number
(B)
-
+
0
Strangene
ss
(S)
0
-1
-1
Kaon
Zero
d
sd
K0
Charge
(Q)
-
+
0
Baryon
Number
(B)
+
-
0
Strangen
ess
(S)
0
+1
+1
AntiKao
n
Zero
dd
s
KK0
Charge
(Q)
+
-
0
Baryon
Number
(B)
-
+
0
Strangene
ss
(S)
0
-1
-1
Anti Hadrons
Anti hadrons are made from the opposite quarks as their Hadron counterparts, for
example a proton is made from the quark combination uud and an antiproton is made
from the combination uud d
We can see that a + and a - are particle and antiparticle of each other.
Anti
Baryon
Strangen
Anti
Baryon
Strangene
Proto
Charge
Number
ess
Neutr
Charge
Number
ss
n
(Q)
(B)
(S)
on
(Q)
(B)
(S)
u
-
-
0
dd
+
-
0
u
-
-
0
u
-
-
0
dd
+
-
0
dd
+
-
0
pKK
-1
-1
0
nK
0
-1
0
You need to know all the quark combination shown on this page as they may ask you to recite
any of them.
Leptons
Unit 1
Lesson 5
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain what a lepton is

To know the properties common to all leptons
To be able to explain the conservation laws and be able to use them
N. DWYER
Fundamental Particles
A fundamental particle is a particle which is not made of anything smaller. Baryons and
Mesons are made from quarks so they are not fundamental, but quarks themselves are.
The only other known fundamental particles are Bosons (see Lesson 6: Forces and
Exchange Particles) and Leptons.
Leptons
Leptons are a family of particles that are much lighter than Baryons and Mesons and are
not subject to the strong interaction. There are six leptons in total, three of them are
charged and three are uncharged.
The charged particles are electrons, muons and tauons. The muon and tauon are similar
to the electron but bigger. The muon is roughly 200 times bigger and the tauon is 3500
times bigger (twice the size of a proton).
Each of the charged leptons has its own neutrino. If a decay involves a neutrino and a
muon, it will be a muon neutrino, not a tauon neutrino or electron neutrino.
The neutrino is a chargeless, almost massless particle. It isnt affected by the strong
interaction or EM force and barely by gravity. It is almost impossible to detect.
e-
Charg
e
(Q)
-1
Lepton
Number
(L)
+1
0
-1
0
-1
Lepton
Electron
Electron
Neutrino
Muon
Muon Neutrino
Tauon
Tauon
Neutrino
e+
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
Anti Electron
Anti Electron
Neutrino
Anti Muon
Anti Muon Neutrino
Anti Tauon
Lepton
Number
(L)
-1
d e
+
d
+
0
+1
0
+1
-1
-1
-1
-1
+1
Anti Tauon Neutrino
-1
Charge
(Q)
Anti Lepton
Conservation Laws
For a particle interaction to occur the following laws must be obeyed, if either is violated
the reaction will never be observed (will never happen):
Charge:
Must be conserved (same total value before as the total value after)
Baryon Number:
Must be conserved
Lepton Number:
Must be conserved
Strangeness: Conserved in EM and Strong Interaction. Doesnt have to be conserved in
Weak Interaction
Examples
In pair production a photon of energy is converted into a particle and its antiparticle
e+
e+
Q
0
-1
+
+1
0
0
Conserved
B
0
0
+
0
0
0
Conserved
L
0
+1
+
-1
0
0
Conserved
S
0
0
+
0
0
0
Conserved
Let us look at beta plus decay as we knew it at GCSE. A neutron decays into a proton and
releases an electron.
n
p
+
eQ
0
+1
+
-1
0
0
Conserved
B
+1
+1
+
0
+1
+1
Conserved
Not
L
0
0
+
+1
0
+1
Conserved
S
0
0
+
0
0
0
Conserved
This contributed to the search for and discovery of the neutrino.
Number Reminders
There may be a clue to the charge of a particle; +, K+ and e+ have a positive charge.
It will only have a baryon number if it IS a baryon. Mesons and Leptons have a Baryon
Number of zero.
It will only have a lepton number if it IS a lepton. Baryons and Mesons have a Lepton
Number of zero.
It will only have a strangeness if it is made from a strange quark. Leptons have a
strangeness of zero.
Unit 1
Lesson 6
Learning
Outcomes
Forces and Exchange

Particles
To know the four fundamental forces, their ranges and relative strengths
To know what each force does and what it acts on
To be able to explain what exchange particles are
N. DWYER
The Four Interactions

There are four forces in the universe, some you will have come across already and some
will be new:
The electromagnetic interaction causes an attractive or repulsive force between charges.
The gravitational interaction causes an attractive force between masses.

The strong nuclear interaction causes an attractive (or repulsive) force between quarks
(and so hadrons).
The weak nuclear interaction does not cause a physical force, it makes particles decay.
Weak means there is a low probability that it will happen.
Interaction/Force
Range
Relative Strength
-15
Strong Nuclear
~10 m
1
(1)
Electromagnetic
~102
-18
Weak Nuclear
~10 m
Gravitational
~10
~1036
(0.01)
(0.0000001)
(0.000000000000000000000000000000
000001)
Exchange Particles
In 1935 Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa put forward the idea that the interactions/forces
between two particles were caused by virtual particles being exchanged between the
two particles.
He was working on the strong nuclear force which keeps protons and neutrons together
and theorised that they were exchanging a particle back and forth that carried the force
and kept them together. This is true of all the fundamental interactions.
The general term for exchange particles is bosons and they are fundamental particles like
quarks and leptons.
Ice Skating Analogy
Imagine two people on ice skates that will represent the two bodies experiencing a force.
If A throws a bowling ball to B, A slides back when they release it and B moves back when
they catch it. Repeatedly throwing the ball back and forth moves A and B away from each
other, the force causes repulsion.
The analogy falls a little short when thinking of attraction, but bear with it.
Now imagine that A and B are exchanging a boomerang (bear with it), throwing it behind
them pushes A towards B, B catches it from behind and moves towards A. The force
causes attraction.
Which Particle for What Force

Each of the interactions/forces has its own exchange particles.
Interaction/Forc
Exchange Particle
e
Gluons between
Pions between
Strong Nuclear
quarks
Baryons
Electromagnetic
Weak Nuclear
Gravitational
Virtual Photon
W
What is acts upon

Nucleons (Hadrons)
Charged particles
Graviton
All particles
Particles with masses
Borrowing Energy to Make Particles

The exchange particles are made from borrowed energy, borrowed from where? From
nowhere! Yukawa used the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle to establish that a particle of
mass-energy E could exist for a time t as long as E.t h where h is Plancks
constant. This means that a heavy particle can only exist for a short time while a lighter
particle may exist for longer.
h is Plancks Constant, h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s.
In 1947 the exchange particle of the strong nuclear interaction were observed in a cloud
chamber.
Lending Money Analogy
Think of making exchange particles in terms of lending somebody some money.
If you lend somebody 50 you would want it paid back fairly soon.
If you lend somebody 50p you would let them have it for longer before paying you back.
Unit 1
Lesson 7
The Strong Interaction

To know why a nucleus doesnt tear itself apart
Learning
Outcomes
To know why a nucleus doesnt collapse in on itself

To know why the neutron exists in the nucleus
N. DWYER
The Strong Interaction

The strong nuclear force acts between quarks. Since Hadrons are the only
particles made of quarks only they experience the strong nuclear force.
In both Baryons and Mesons the quarks are attracted to each other by
exchanging virtual particles called gluons.
On a larger scale the strong nuclear force acts between the
Hadrons themselves, keeping them together. A pi-meson or
pion () is exchanged between the hadrons. This is called the
residual strong nuclear force.
Force Graphs
Neutron-Neutron or Neutron-Proton
Here is the graph of how the force varies between two
neutrons or a proton and a neutron as the distance between
them is increased.
We can see that the force is very strongly repulsive at
separations of less than 0.7 fm ( x 1015 m). This prevents all
the nucleons from crushing into each other.
Above this separation the force is strongly attractive with a
peak around 1.3 fm. When the nucleons are separated by
more than 5 fm they no longer experience the SNF.
Proton-Proton
The force-separation graphs for two protons is different. They both attract each other due
to the SNF but they also repel each other due to the electromagnetic force which causes
two like charges to repel.
Graph A
Graph B
Graph C
Graph A shows how the strong nuclear force varies with the separation of the protons
Graph B shows how the electromagnetic force varies with the separation of the protons
Graph C shows the resultant of these two forces: repulsive at separations less than 0.7 fm,
attractive up to 2 fm when the force becomes repulsive again.
Neutrons Nuclear Cement

In the lighter elements the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is the same. As
the nucleus gets bigger more neutrons are needed to keep it together.
Adding another proton

means that all the other
nucleons feel the SNF
attraction. It also means
that all the other protons
feel the EM repulsion.
Adding another neutron
adds to the SNF attraction
between the nucleons but, since it is
uncharged, it does not contribute to the EM
repulsion.
The Weak Interaction
Unit 1
Lesson 8
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to write the equation for alpha and beta decay

To know what a neutrino is and why is must exist
To be able to state the changes in quarks during beta plus and beta
minus decay
N. DWYER
Alpha Decay
When a nucleus decays in this way an alpha particle (a helium nucleus) is ejected from
the nucleus.
A
A 4
4
A
A 4
4
or
Z X Z 2Y 2
Z X Z 2Y 2 He
All the emitted alpha particles travelled at the same speed, meaning they had the same
amount of energy. The law of conservation of mass-energy is met, the energy of the
nucleus before the decay is the same as the energy of the nucleus and alpha particle after
the decay.
Alpha decay is NOT due to the weak interaction but Beta decay IS
Beta Decay and the Neutrino

In beta decay a neutron in the nucleus changes to a proton and releases a beta particle
(an electron).
The problem with beta decay was that the electrons had a range of energies so the law of
conservation of mass-energy is violated, energy disappears. There must be another
particle being made with zero mass but variable speeds, the neutrino.
We can also see from the particle conservation laws that this is a forbidden interaction:
n p e
Charge
Baryon Number
Lepton Number
Q: 0 +11
B: +1 +1+0
L: 0 0+1
Beta Minus () Decay
00
11
01
Charge is conserved
Baryon number is conserved
Lepton number is NOT conserved
In neutron rich nuclei a neutron may decay into a proton, electron and an anti electron
neutrino.
n p e e
Charge
Baryon Number
Lepton Number
Q: 0 +11+0 0 0
B: +1 +1+0+0 1 1
L: 0 0+11
00
Charge is conserved
Lepton number is conserved
In terms of quarks beta minus decay looks like this: dud uud e e which simplifies to:
d u e e
Charge
Baryon Number
conserved
Lepton Number
Beta Plus ( ) Decay

+
Q: +1+0
B: + ++0+0
Charge is conserved
Baryon number is
L: 0 0+11
00
In proton rich nuclei a proton may decay into a neutron, positron and an electron neutrino.
p n e e
Charge
Baryon Number
Lepton Number
Q: +1 0+1+0 1 1
B: +1 +1+0+0 1 1
L: 0 01+1
00
Charge is conserved
In terms of quarks beta plus decay looks like this: uud dud e e which simplifies to:
u d e e
Charge
Baryon Number
conserved
Lepton Number
Q: + +1+0
Charge is conserved
B: + ++0+0
Baryon number is
L: 0 01+1
00
Strangeness
The weak interaction is the only interaction that causes a quark to change into a different
type of quark. In beta decay up quarks and down quarks are changed into one another. In
some reactions an up or down quark can change into a strange quark meaning
strangeness is not conserved.
During the weak interaction there can be a change in strangeness of 1.
Feynman Diagrams
Unit 1
Lesson 9
Learning
Outcomes
To know what a Feynman diagram shows us

To be able to draw Feynman diagrams to represent interactions and decays
To be able to state the correct exchange particle
N. DWYER
Feynman Diagrams
An American Physicist called Richard Feynman came up with a way of visualising forces
and exchange particles. Below are some examples of how Feynman diagrams can
represent particle interactions.
The most important things to note when dealing with Feynman diagrams are the arrows
and the exchange particles, the lines do not show us the path that the particles take only
which come in and which go out.
The arrows tell us which particles are present before the interaction and which are
present after the interaction.
The wave represents the interaction taking place with the appropriate exchange particle
labelled.
Examples
Diagram 1 represents the strong interaction. A proton and neutron are attracted together
by the exchange of a neutral pion.
Diagram 2 represents the electromagnetic interaction. Two electrons repel each other by
the exchange of a virtual photon.
Diagram 3 represents beta minus decay. A neutron decays due to the weak interaction
into a proton, an electron and an anti electron neutrino
Diagram 4 represents beta plus decay. A proton decays into a neutron, a positron and an
electron neutrino.
Diagram 5 represents electron capture. A proton captures an electron and becomes a

neutron and an electron neutrino.
Diagram 6 represents a neutrino-neutron collision. A neutron absorbs a neutrino and
forms a proton and an electron.
Diagram 7 represents an antineutrino-proton collision. A proton absorbs an antineutrino
and emits a neutron and an electron.
Diagram 8 represents an electron-proton collision. They collide and emit a neutron and an
electron neutrino.
Getting the Exchange Particle

The aspect of Feynman diagrams that students often struggle with is labelling the
exchange particle and the direction to draw it. Look at what you start with:
If it is positive and becomes neutral you can think of it as throwing away its positive
charge so the boson will be positive. This is the case in electron capture.
If it is positive and becomes neutral you can think of it as gaining negative to neutralise it
so the boson will be negative. This is the case in electron-proton collisions.
If it is neutral and becomes positive we can think of it either as gaining positive (W+
boson) or losing negative (W boson in the opposite direction).
Work out where the charge is going and label it.
The Photoelectric Effect
Unit 1
Lesson 10
Learning
Outcomes
To know what the photoelectric effect is and how frequency and intensity affect it
To be able to explain what photon, photoelectron, work function and threshold
frequency are
To be able to calculate the kinetic energy of a photoelectron
N. DWYER
Observations
When light fell onto a metal plate it released electrons from the surface straight away.
Increasing the intensity increased the number of electrons emitted. If the frequency of the
light was lowered, no electrons were emitted at all. Increasing the intensity and giving it
more time did nothing, no electrons were emitted.
If Light was a Wave
Increasing the intensity would increase the energy of the light. The energy from the light
would be evenly spread over the metal and each electron would be given a small amount
of energy. Eventually the electron would have enough energy to be removed from the
metal.
Photon
Max Planck had the idea that light could be released in chunks or packets of energy.
Einstein named these wave-packets photons. The energy carried by a photon is given by
the equation:
hc
E hf
Since c f we can also write this as: E
Explaining the Photoelectric Efect
Einstein suggested that one photon collides with one electron in the metal, giving it
enough energy to be removed from the metal and then fly off somewhere. Some of the
energy of the photon is used to break the bonds holding the electron in the metal and the
rest of the energy is used by the electron to move away (kinetic energy). He represented
hf E K
this with the equation:
hf represents the energy of the photon, is the work function and EK is the kinetic energy.
Work Function,
The work function is the amount of energy the electron requires to be completely
removed from the surface of the metal. This is the energy just to remove it, not to move
away.
Threshold Frequency, f0
The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency that would release an electron from
the surface of a metal, any less and nothing will happen.
hf E K , the minimum frequency releases an
Since
electron that is not moving, so EK = 0
hf 0 which can be rearranged to give: f 0

h
Increasing the intensity increases the number of photons the light sources gives out each
second.
If the photon has less energy than the work function an electron can not be removed.
Increasing the intensity just sends out more photons, all of which would still not have
enough energy to release an electron.
Graph
If we plot a graph of the kinetic energy of the electrons
against frequency we get a graph that looks like this:
Start with hf E K and transform into y mx c .
EK is the y-axis and f is the x- axis.
E K hf
This makes the equation become:
So the gradient represents Plancks constant
and the y-intercept represents () the work function.
Nightclub Analogy
We can think of the photoelectric effect in terms of a full nightclub; let the people going
into the club represent the photons, the people leaving the club represent the electrons
and money represent the energy.
The club is full so it is one in and one out. The work function equals the entrance fee and
is 5:
If you have 3 you dont have enough to get in so noone is kicked out.
If 50 people arrive with 3 no one has enough, so one gets in and noone is kicked out.
If you have 5 you have enough to get in so someone is kicked out, but you have no
money for booze.
If 50 people arrive with 5 you all get in so 50 people are kicked out, but you have no
money for booze.
If you have 20 you have enough to get in so someone is kicked out and you have 15 to
spend on booze.
If 50 people arrive with 20 you all get in so 50 people are kicked out and you have 15
each to spend on booze.
Unit 1
Lesson 11
Learning
Outcomes
Excitation, Ionisation and

Energy Levels
To know how Bohr solved the falling electron problem
To be able to explain what excitation, de-excitation and ionisation are
To be able to calculate the frequency needed for excitation to a
certain level
N. DWYER
The Electronvolt, eV
The Joule is too big use on an atomic and nuclear scale so we will now use the
electronvolt, represented by eV.
One electronvolt is equal to the energy gained by an electron of charge e, when it is
accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
18
= 6.25 x 10 eV
eV J multiply by e
J eV divide by e
1J
The Problem with Atoms

Rutherfords nuclear model of the atom leaves us with
a problem: a charged particle emits radiation when it
accelerates. This would mean that the electrons would
fall into the nucleus.
Bohr to the Rescue
Niels Bohr solved this problem by suggesting that the
electrons could only orbit the nucleus in certain
allowed energy levels. He suggested that an electron
may only transfer energy when it moves from one
energy level to another. A change from one level to
another is called a transition.
To move up and energy level the electron must
gain the exact amount of energy to make the
transition.
It can do this by another electron colliding
with it or by absorbing a photon of the
exact energy.
When moving down a level the electron must
lose the exact amount of energy when making
the transition.
It releases this energy as a photon of
energy equal to the energy it loses.
E hf E1 E 2
E1 is the energy of the level the electron starts at and E2 is the energy of the level the
electron ends at
Excitation
When an electron gains the exact amount of energy to move up one or more energy
levels
De-excitation
When an electron gives out the exact amount of energy to move back down to its original
energy level
Ionisation
An electron can gain enough energy to be completely removed from the atom.
The ground state and the energy levels leading up to ionisation have negative values of
energy, this is because they are compared to the ionisation level. Remember that energy
must be given to the electrons to move up a level
and is lost (or given out) when it moves down a level.
Line Spectra
Atoms of the same element have same energy levels.
Each transition releases a photon with a set amount
of energy meaning the frequency and wavelength are
also set. The wavelength of light is responsible for
colour it is. We can analyse the light by using a
diffraction grating to
separate light into the
colours that makes it up,
called its line spectra. Each element has its own line spectra like
a barcode.
To the above right are the line spectra of Hydrogen and Helium.
We can calculate the energy difference that created the colour.
If we know the energy differences for each element we can work
out which element is responsible for the light and hence deduce
which elements are present.
We can see that there are 6 possible transitions in the diagram to the left, A to F.
D has an energy difference of 1.9 eV or 3.04 x 10 -19 J which corresponds to a frequency of
4.59 x 1014 Hz and a wavelength of 654 nm red.
Unit 1
Lesson 12
Wave-Particle Duality
To know how to calculate the de Broglie wavelength and what is it
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain what electron diffraction shows us

To know what wave-particle duality is
N. DWYER
De Broglie
In 1923 Louis de Broglie put forward the idea that all particles have a wave nature
meaning that particles can behave like waves.
This doesnt sound too far fetched after Einstein proved that a wave can behave like a
particle.
De Broglie said that all particles could have a wavelength. A particle of mass, m, that is
travelling at velocity, v, would have a wavelength given by:
h
h
which is sometime written as

where p is momentum
p
mv
This wavelength is called the de Broglie wavelength. The modern view is that the de
Broglie wavelength is linked to the probability of finding the particle at a certain point in
space.
De Broglie wavelength is measured in metres, m
Electron Difraction
Two years after de Broglie came up
with his particle wavelengths and
idea that electrons could diffract,
Davisson and Germer proved this to
happen.
They fired electrons into a crystal
structure which acted as a
diffraction grating. This produced
areas of electrons and no electrons
on the screen behind it, just like the
pattern you get when light diffracts.
Electron Wavelength
We can calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron from
the potential difference, V, that accelerated it.
Change in electric potential energy gained = eV
1
eV mv 2
This is equal to the kinetic energy of the electron
2
2eV
The velocity is therefore given by:
v
m
h
h
We can substitute this into

to get:
2meV
mv
Sand Analogy
If we compare a double slit electron diffraction to sand falling from containers we can see
how crazy electron diffraction is. Imagine two
holes about 30cm apart that sand is dropping
from. We would expect to find a maximum amount
of sand under each hole, right? This is not what we
find! We find a maximum in between the two
holes. The electrons are acting like a wave.
Wave-Particle Duality
Wave-particle duality means that waves sometimes behave like particles and particles
sometimes behave like waves. Some examples of these are shown below:
Light as a Wave
Diffraction, interference, polarisation and refraction all prove that light is a wave and will
be covered in Unit 2.
Light as a Particle
We have seen that the photoelectric effect shows that light can behave as a particle
called a photon.
Electron as a Particle
The deflection by an electromagnetic field and collisions with other particles show its
particle nature.
Electron as a Wave
Electron diffraction proves that a particle can show wave behaviour .
QVIRt
Unit 1
Lesson 13
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain what current, charge, voltage/potential difference and

resistance are
To know the equations that link these
To know the correct units to be use in each
N. DWYER
Definitions
Current, I
Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit. Electrons are charged particles
that move around the circuit. So we can think of the electrical current is the rate of the
flow of electrons, not so much the speed but the number of electrons moving in the
circuit. If we imagine that electrons are Year 7 students and a wire of a circuit is a corridor,
the current is how many students passing in a set time.
Current is measured in Amperes (or Amps), A
Charge, Q
The amount of electrical charge is a fundamental unit, similar to mass and length and
time. From the data sheet we can see that the charge on one electron is actually -1.60 x
10-19 C. This means that it takes 6.25 x 1018 electrons to transfer 1C of charge.
Charge is measured in Coulombs, C
Voltage/Potential Diference, V
Voltage, or potential difference, is the work done per unit charge.
1 unit of charge is 6.25 x 1018 electrons, so we can think of potential difference as the
energy given to each of the electrons, or the pushing force on the electrons. It is the p.d.
that causes a current to flow and we can think of it like water flowing in a pipe. If we make
one end higher than the other end, water will flow down in, if we increase the height
(increase the p.d.) we get more flowing. If we think of current as Year 7s walking down a
corridor, the harder we push them down the corridor the more we get flowing.
Voltage and p.d. are measured in Volts, V
Resistance, R
The resistance of a material tells us how easy or difficult it is to make a current flow
through it. If we think of current as Year 7s walking down a corridor, it would be harder to
make the Year 7s flow if we added some Year 11 rugby players into the corridor. Increasing
resistance lowers the current.
Resistance is measured in Ohms,
Time, t
You know, time! How long stuff takes and that.
Time is measured in seconds, s
Equations
There are three equations that we need to be able to explain and substitute numbers into.
1
Q
t
This says that the current is the rate of change of charge per second and backs up or idea
of current as the rate at which electrons (and charge) flow.
This can be rearranged into
I
Q It
which means that the charge is equal to how much is flowing multiplied by how long it
flows for.
2
V
E
Q
This says that the voltage/p.d. is equal to the energy per charge. The push of the
electrons is equal to the energy given to each charge (electron).
3
V IR
This says that increasing the p.d. increases the current. Increasing the push of the
electrons makes more flow.
It also shows us that for constant V, if R increases I gets smaller. Pushing the same
strength, if there is more blocking force less current will flow.
Ohms Laws and I-V Graphs
Unit 1
Lesson 14
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to sketch and explain the I-V graphs of a diode, filament lamp and
resistor
To be able to describe the experimental set up and measurements required to
obtain these graphs
To know how the resistance of an LDR and Thermistor varies
N. DWYER
Ohms Law

After the last lesson we knew that a voltage (or potential difference) causes a current to
flow and that the size of the current depends on the size of the p.d.
For something to obey Ohms law the current flowing is proportional to the p.d. pushing it.
V=IR so this means the resistance is constant. On a graph of current against p.d. this
appears as a straight line.
Taking Measurements
To find how the current through a component
varies with the potential difference across it
we must take readings. To measure the
potential difference we use a voltmeter
connected in parallel and to measure the
current we use an ammeter connected in
series.
If we connect the component to a battery we
would now have one reading for the p.d. and
one for the current. But what we require is a range of readings. One way around this
would be to use a range of batteries to give different p.d.s. A better way is to add a
variable resistor to the circuit, this allows us to use one battery and
get a range of readings for current and p.d. To obtain values for current
in the negative direction we can reverse either the battery or the
component.
I-V Graphs

Resistor
This shows that when p.d. is zero so is the current. When we increase
the p.d. in one direction the current increases in that direction. If we
apply a p.d. in the reverse direction a current flows in the reverse
direction. The straight line shows that current is proportional to p.d.
and it obeys Ohms law. Graph a has a lower resistance than graph b
because for the same p.d. less current flows through b.
Filament Lamp
At low values the current is proportional to p.d. and so, obeys Ohms
law.
As the potential difference and current increase so does the
temperature. This increases the resistance and the graph curves, since
resistance changes it no longer obeys Ohms law.
Diode
This shows us that in one direction increasing the p.d. increases the
current but in the reverse direction the p.d. does not make a current
flow. We say that it is forward biased. Since resistance changes it does not obey Ohms
law.
Three Special Resistors

Variable Resistor
A variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be changed.
Thermistor
The resistance of a thermistor varied with
temperature. At low temperatures the
resistance is high, at high temperatures the
resistance is low.
Light Dependant Resistor (L.D.R)
The resistance of a thermistor varied with light intensity. In dim light the resistance is
high and in bright light the resistance is low.
Resistivity and
Superconductivity
Unit 1
Lesson 15
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to state what affects resistance of a wire and explain how they affect
it
To be able to describe the experimental set up required to calculate resistivity
and define it
To be able to explain superconductivity and state its uses
N. DWYER
Resistance
The resistance of a wire is caused by free electrons colliding with the positive ions that
make up the structure of the metal. The resistance depends upon several factors:
Length, l
Length increases resistance
increases
The longer the piece of wire the more collisions the electrons will have.
Area, A
Area increases resistance
decreases
The wider the piece of wire the more gaps there are between the ions.
Temperature
Temperature increases
resistance increases
As temperature increases the ions are given more energy and vibrate more, the electrons
are more likely to collide with the ions.
Material
The structure of any two metals is similar but not the same, some metal ions are closer
together, others have bigger ions.
Resistivity,
The resistance of a material can be calculate using
l
A
where is the resistivity
of the material.
Resistivity is a factor that accounts for the structure of the metal and the temperature.
Each metal has its own value of resisitivity for each temperature. For example, the
resistivity of copper is 1.7x10-8 m and carbon is 3x10-5 m at room temperature. When
both are heated to 100C their resistivities increase.
Resistivity is measured in Ohm metres , m
Measuring Resistivity
In order to measure resistivity of a wire we need to
measure the length, cross-sectional area (using Area =
r2) and resistance.
Remember, to measure the resistance we need to
measure values of current and potential difference using
the set up shown on the right
We then rearrange the equation to
RA
and substitute values in
l
Superconductivity
The resistivity (and so resistance) of metals
increases with the temperature. The reverse is also
true that, lowering the temperature lowers the
resistivity.
When certain metals are cooled below a critical
temperature their resistivity drops to zero. The
metal now has zero resistance and allows massive
currents to flow without losing any energy as heat.
These metals are called superconductors. When a
superconductor is heated above its critical
temperature it loses its superconductivity and
behaves like other metals.
The highest recorded temperature to date is
196C, large amounts of energy are required to
cool the metal to below this temperature.
Uses of Superconductors
High-power electromagnets
Power cables
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners
Unit 1
Lesson 16
Learning
Outcomes
Series and Parallel Circuits

To be able to calculate total current in series and parallel circuits
To be able to calculate total potential difference in series and parallel circuits
To be able to calculate total resistance in series and parallel circuits
N. DWYER
Series Circuits
(Also seen in GCSE

Physics 2)
In a series circuit all the
components are in one circuit or
loop. If resistor 1 in the diagram was
removed this would break the whole
circuit.
The total current of the circuit is the same at each point in the circuit. I TOTAL I1 I 2 I 3
The total voltage of the circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s across each resistor.
VTOTAL V1 V2 V3
The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the resistance of each resistor.
RTOTAL R1 R2 R3
Parallel Circuits

Components in parallel have their own separate circuit or
loop. If resistor 1 in the diagram was removed this would only
break that circuit, a current would still flow through resistors
2 and 3.
The total current is equal to the sum of the currents through

each resistor.
I TOTAL I1 I 2 I 3
The total potential difference is equal to the p.d.s across each

resistor.
VTOTAL V1 V2 V3
The total resistance can be calculated using the equation:

1
1
1
1
RTOTAL
R1 R2 R3
Water Slide Analogy

Imagine instead of getting a potential difference we get a height
difference by reaching the top of a slide. This series circuit has three
connected slides and the parallel circuit below has three separate slides
that reach the bottom.
Voltages/P.D.s
In series we can see that the total height loss is equal to how much you
fall on slide 1, slide 2 and slide 3 added together. This means that the
total p.d. lost must be the p.d. given by the battery. If the resistors have
equal values this drop in potential difference will be equal.
In parallel we see each slide will drop by the same height meaning the potential difference
is equal to the total potential difference of the battery.
Currents
If we imagine 100 people on the water slide, in series we
can see that 100 people get to the top. All 100 must go
down slide 1 then slide 2 and final slide 3, there is no other
option. So the current in a series circuit is the same
everywhere.
In parallel we see there is a choice in the slide we take. 100
people get to the top of the slide but some may go down
slide 1, some down slide 2 and some down slide 3. The total
number of people is equal to the number of people going
down each slide added together, and the total current is
equal to the currents in each circuit/loop.
Energy and Power
Unit 1
Lesson 17
Learning
Outcomes
To know what power is and how to calculate the power of an electrical circuit
To know how to calculate the energy transferred in an electrical circuit
To be able to derive further equations or use a series of equations to
N. DWYER
find the answer
Power

Power is a measure of how quickly something can transfer energy. Power is linked to
energy by the equation:
Energy is measured in Joules, J
Energy
Power
time
Power
is measured in Watts, W
New Equations
If we look at the equations from the QVIRt lesson we can derive some new equations for
energy and power.
Energy
V
E
can be rearranged into E VQ and we know that Q It so combining these
Q
equations we get a new one to calculate the energy in an electric circuit:

E VQ <---------------------- Q It
E VIt (1)
so
Power
If we look at the top equation, to work out power we divide energy by time:
E VIt
P VI (2)
which cancels out to become
t
t
If we substitute V IR into the last equation we get another equation for power:
P IV <---------------------- V IR
so
P I 2 R (3)
We can also rearrange V IR into I
V
and substitute this into P VI to get our last
R
equation for power:
P VI <---------------------- I
V
R
so
V2
(4)
R
Energy again
Two more equations for energy can be derived from the equation at the top and equations
3 and 4
Energy = Power x time
Pt I 2 Rt
Pt
V2
t
R
Equation 3 becomes E I 2 Rt (5)

E
Equation 4 becomes
V2
t (6)
R
Fuses

Electrical devices connected to the Mains supply by a three-pin plug have a fuse as part of
their circuit. This is a thin piece of wire that melts if the current through it exceeds its
maximum tolerance. The common fuses used are 3A, 5A and 13A. A 100W light bulb
connected to the UK Mains would have a 240V potential difference across it. Using P IV
we can see that the current would be 0.42A so a 2A fuse would be the best to use.
Applications
The starter motor of a motor car needs to transfer a lot of energy very quickly, meaning
its needs a high power. Millions of Joules are required in seconds; since the voltage of the
battery is unchanging we need current in the region of 160A which is enormous.
The power lines that are held by pylons and form part of the National Grid are very thick
and carry electricity that has a very high voltage. Increasing the voltage lowers the
current so if we look at the equation E I 2 Rt we can see that this lowers the energy
transferred to the surroundings.
Unit 1
Lesson 18
Learning
Outcomes
EMF and Internal Resistance

To know what emf and internal resistance are
To know how to measure internal resistance
To be able sketch and interpret a V-I graph, labelling the gradient
and y-intercept
N. DWYER
Energy in Circuits
In circuits there are two fundamental types of component: energy givers and energy
takers.
Electromotive Force (emf),

Energy givers provide an electromotive force, they force electrons around the circuit
which transfer energy.
The size of the emf can be calculate using:
E
Q
This is similar to the equation we use to find voltage/potential difference and means the
energy given to each unit of charge. We can think of this as the energy given to each
electron.
The emf of a supply is the p.d. across its terminals when no current flows
EMF is measured in Joules per Coulomb, JC-1 or Volts, V
Energy takers have a potential difference across them, transferring energy from the circuit
to the component.
emf = energy giver
p.d. = energy taker
Energy is conserved in a circuit so energy in = energy out, or:
The total of the emfs = The total of the potential differences around the whole circuit
Internal Resistance, r
The chemicals inside a cell offer a resistance to the flow of current, this is the internal
resistance on the cell.
Internal Resistance is measured in Ohms,
Linking emf and r

If we look at the statement in the box above and apply it to the circuit below, we can
reach an equation that links emf and r.
Total emfs = total potential differences
= (p.d. across r) + (p.d. across R)

{Remember that V=IR}
=
(I x r)
+
(I x R)
=
Ir
+
IR
= I(r+R)
The terminal p.d. is the p.d. across the terminals of the cell
when a current is flowing
= internal p.d + terminal p.d.

So the above equation can be written as = Ir + V where V is the
terminal p.d.
Measuring emf and r

We can measure the emf and internal resistance of a cell by
measuring the current and voltage as shown on the right, the
variable resistor allows us to get a range of values. If we plot the
results onto a graph of voltmeter reading against ammeter
reading we get a graph that looks like the one below.
Graphs have the general equation of y = mx+c, where y is the
vertical (upwards) axis, x is the horizontal (across) axis, m is the
gradient of the line and c is where
the line intercepts (cuts) the y axis.
If we take = Ir + V and arrange it into y= mx + c
y axis = V and x axis = I
= Ir + V V = -Ir +
V = -r I +
y =m x
+c
So we can see that the:
y-intercept represents the emf
and
gradient represents ()internal resistance
Kirchhoff and Potential

Dividers
Unit 1
Lesson 19
Learning
Outcomes
To know Kirchhoffs laws and be able to apply them to questions

To know what a potential dividers is and be able to calculate the output voltage
To be able to explain an application of a potential divider
N. DWYER
Kirchhofs Laws
Kirchhoff came up with two (some may say rather obvious) laws
concerning conservation in electrical circuits.
Captain Obvious First Law
Electric charge is conserved in all circuits, all the charge that
arrives at a point must leave it.
Current going in = current going
out.
In the diagram we can say that:
I1 = I2 + I3 + I4
Captain Obvious Second Law
Energy is conserved in all circuits, for any complete circuit the sum of the emfs is equal to
the sum of the potential differences.
Energy givers = energy takers.
In the diagram we can say that:
= pd1 + pd2 + pd3 + pd4.
Potential Dividers
A potential divider is used to produce a desired
potential difference, it can be thought of as a potential
selector.
A typical potential divider consists of two or more
resistors that share the emf from the battery/cell.
The p.d.s across R1 and R2 can be calculated using the
following equations:
V1 V0
R1
R1 R 2
V 2 V0
R2
R1 R 2
This actually shows us that the size of the potential difference is equal to the input
potential multiplied by what proportion of R1 is of the total resistance.
If R1 is 10 and R2 is 90 , R1 contributes a tenth of the total resistance so R1 has a tenth
of the available potential. This can be represented using:
R1 V1
The ratio of the resistances is equal to the ratio of the output voltages.
R2 V2
Uses
In this potential divider the second resistor is a thermistor. When
the
temperature is low the resistance (R2) is high, this makes the
output voltage
high. When the temperature is high the resistance (R2) is low, this
makes the
output voltage low. A use of this would be a cooling fan that
works harder
when it is warm.
In the second potential divider the second resistor is a Light
Dependant Resisitor.
When the light levels are low the resistance (R2) is high,
making the output voltage
high. When the light levels increase the resistance (R2)
decreases, this makes the
output voltage decrease. A use of this could be a street light
sensor that lights up
when the surrounding are dark.
Alternating Current
Unit 1
Lesson 20
Learning
Outcomes
To know what peak current/voltage is and to be able to identify it

To know what peak-to-peak current/voltage is and to be able to identify it
To know what r.m.s. values are and to be able to calculate them
N. DWYER
ACDC Definitions

Direct Current
Cells and batteries are suppliers of direct current; they supply an emf in one direction.
In the graph below we can see that the current and voltage are constant. The bottom line
shows that when the battery or cell is reversed the voltage and current are constants in
the other direction
Alternating Current
The Mains electricity supplies an alternating current; it supplies an emf that alternates
from maximum in one direction to maximum in the other direction.
In the graph below we see the voltage and current start at zero, increase to a maximum in
the positive direction, then fall to zero, reach a maximum in the negative direction and
return to zero. This is one cycle.
Alternating Current Definitions

Peak Value
The peak value of either the
current or the potential difference
is the maximum in either
direction. It can be measured
from the wave as the amplitude,
the distance from 0 to the top (or
bottom) of the wave. We denote
peak current with I0 and peak p.d.
with V0.
Peak-to-Peak Value
The peak-to-peak value of either
the current or potential difference
is the range of the values. This is literally the distance from the peak above the zero line
to the peak below the line.
Time Period
In an a.c. current or p.d. this is the time taken for one complete cycle (or wave).
Frequency
As with its use at GCSE, frequency is a measure of how many complete cycles that occur
per second.
Frequency is measured in Hertz, Hz.
Root Mean Squared, r.m.s.
Since the current and p.d. is constantly changing it is impossible to assign them a fixed
value over a period of time, the average would be zero. The r.m.s. current produces the
same heating effect in a resistor as the equivalent d.c. for example 12V dc = 12Vrms ac
I
I rms 0
I 0 I rms 2
which can be rearranged to give
2
Vrms
Unit 1
Lesson 21
Learning
Outcomes
V0
2
which can also be rearranged to give V0 Vrms 2
The Oscilloscope
To know what are the main controls of the oscilloscope
To be able to determine the voltage and current using an oscilloscope
To be able to determine the time period and frequency using an
N. DWYER
oscilloscope
The
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope
can be used to
show the sizes of
voltages and
currents in both
d.c. and a.c.
circuits. This is
what a typical
oscilloscope
looks like. A
trace would be
seen on the grid display.
D.C. Traces

If we connected a battery or cell to an oscilloscope, we would see a
trace similar to the one shown here. The current of a d.c. supply is
constant, this means the voltage is constant.
We see a straight line.
A.C. Traces

anything that draws power from the Mains to an
will see a similar trace to the one shown here. The
constantly changing from maximum flow in one
maximum flow in the other direction; this means
doing the same.
If we connect
oscilloscope we
current is
direction to
the voltage is
We see a wave.
Controls
There are two main controls that we use are the volts/div and time base dials:
The volts/div (volts per division) dial allows you to change how much each vertical square
is worth.
The time base dial allows you to change how much each horizontal square is worth.
Voltage
We can measure the voltage of a d.c. supply by counting the number or vertical squares
from the origin to the line and then multiplying it by the volts/div. In the trace the line is
2.5 squares above 0, if each square is worth 5 volts the voltage is (2.5 x 5) 12.5 volts.
We can measure the peak voltage of an a.c. supply by counting how many vertical
squares from the centre of the wave to the top and then multiplying it by the volts/div
(how much voltage each square is worth). In the trace the peak voltage is 4 squares high,
if each square is worth 5 volts the voltage is (4 x 5) 20 volts.
Time and Frequency

We can measure the time for one period (wave) by counting how many horizontal squares
one wavelength is and then multiplying it by the time base (how much time each square
is worth).
In the trace above one wave is 6 squares long, if each square is worth 0.02 seconds the
time for one wave is 0.12 seconds.
We can calculate the frequency (how many waves or many times this happens per
second) using the equation:
1
1
f
and T
f
T
If the time period is 0.12 seconds, the frequency is 8.33Hz
Frequency is measured in Hertz, Hz
Unit 2
Lesson 1
Scalars and Vectors
Learning
Outcomes
To know the difference between scalars and vectors and be able to list some
examples of each
To be able to add vectors by scale drawing
To be able to add negative vectors by scale drawing
N. DWYER
What is a Vector?
A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction.
Examples of Vectors: Displacement, velocity, force, acceleration and momentum.
What is a Scalar?
A scalar is a physical quantity that has magnitude only (it doesnt act in a certain
direction).
Examples of Scalars: Distance, speed, energy, power, pressure,
temperature and mass.
Vector Diagrams
A vector can be represented by a vector diagram as well as numerically:
The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector.
The direction of the line represents the direction of the vector.
We can see that vector a has a greater magnitude than vector b but acts
in a different direction.
A negative vector means a vector of equal magnitude but opposite
direction.
Adding Vectors
We can add vectors together to find the affect that two or more would have if acting at
the same time. This is called the resultant vector. We can find the resultant vector in four
ways: Scale drawing, Pythagoras, the Sine and
Cosine rules and Resolving vectors (next lesson).
Scale Drawing
To find the resultant vector of a + b we draw
vector a then draw vector b from the end of a.
The resultant is the line that connects the start
and finish points.
The resultants of a + b, b a, a b, a b and
would look like this:
If the vectors were drawn to scale we can find
the resultant by measuring the length of the line
and the angle.
Pythagoras
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other the
resultant can be found using Pythagoras:
Vector z is the resultant of vectors x and y.
Since x and y are perpendicular z 2 x 2 y 2
z
x2 y2
We can also use this in reverse to find x or y:

z2 x2 y2
z2 y2 x2
z2 y2 x
z2 x2 y2
z2 x2 y 2
z 2 x2 y
Sine and Cosine Rules

The sine rule relates the angles and lengths using this
equation:
sin A sin B sin C
a
b
c
The Cosine rule relates them using these equations:
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cos A
b 2 a 2 c 2 2ac cos B
c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C
Resolving Vectors
Unit 2
Lesson 2
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to resolve vectors into their vertical and horizontal components

To be able to add vectors and find the resultant by resolving them
To know what equilibrium is and how it is achieved
N. DWYER
In the last lesson we looked at how we could add vectors together and find the resultant.
In this lesson we will first look at breaking down the vectors and then finding the
equilibrium.
Resolving Vectors
A vector can be broken down or resolved into its vertical and horizontal components.
We can see that this vector can be resolved
into two perpendicular components, in this
case two to the right and three up.
This is obvious when it is drawn on graph
paper but becomes trickier when there isnt
a grid and still requires an element of scale
drawing.
We can calculate the vertical and horizontal components if we know the magnitude and
direction of the vector. In other words; we can work out the across and upwards bits of the
vector if we know the length of the line and the angle between it and the horizontal or
vertical axis.
Adding Resolved Vectors

Now that we can resolve vectors into the vertical and horizontal components it is made
from we can add them together. Look at this example of multiple vectors acting (A).
A
B
C
D
E
If we resolve the vector c we get (B). We can now find the resultant of the horizontal
components and the resultant of the vertical components (C). We can then add these
together to find the resultant vector (D) and the angle can be found using trigonometry (E)
Equilibrium
When all the forces acting on a body cancel out equilibrium is
reached and the object does not move. As you sit and read this
the downwards forces acting on you are equally balanced by
the upwards forces, the resultant it that you do not move.
With scale drawing we can draw the vectors, one after the other. If we end up in the same
position we started at then equilibrium is achieved.
With resolving vectors we can resolve all vectors into their vertical and horizontal
components. If the components up and down are equal and the components left and right
are equal equilibrium has been reached.
Moments
Unit 2
Lesson 3
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the moment of a single and a pair of forces

To be able to explain what the centre of mass and gravity are
To be able to explain how something balances and becomes stable
N. DWYER
Moments

The moment of a force is its turning affect about a fixed point
(pivot).
The magnitude of the moment is given by:
moment = force x perpendicular distance from force to the pivot
moment Fs
In this diagram we can see that the force is not acting
perpendicularly to the pivot. We must find the perpendicular or
closest distance, this is s cos.
moment Fs cos
The moment in this case is given as:
We could have also used the value of s but multiplied it by the
vertical component of the force. This would give us the same
moment F cos .s
equation.
Moments are measured in Newton metres, Nm
Couples
A couple is a pair of equal forces acting in opposite directions. If a couple acts on an object it
rotates in position. The moment of a couple is called the
torque.
The torque is calculated as: torque = force x
perpendicular distance
between forces
torque Fs
In the diagram to the right we need to calculate the

perpendicular distance, s cos.
torque Fs cos
So in this case:
Torque is measured in Newton metres, Nm
Centre of Mass (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
If we look at the ruler to the right, every part of it has a mass. To make
tackling questions easier we can assume that all the mass is
concentrated in a single point.
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point where all the weight of
the object appears to act. It is in the same position as the centre of
mass.
We can represent the weight of an object as a downward arrow acting
from the centre of mass or gravity. This can also be called the line of
action of the weight.
Balancing (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)

When an object is balanced:
the total moments acting clockwise = the total moments acting anticlockwise
An object suspended from a point (e.g. a pin) will come to rest with the centre of mass
directly below the point of suspension.
If the seesaw to the left is balanced then the clockwise moments must be equal to the
anticlockwise moments.
Clockwise moment due to 3 and 4
moment F3 s3 F4 s 4
Anticlockwise moments due to 1 and 2
moment F1 s1 F2 s 2
F3 s3 F4 s 4 F1 s1 F2 s 2
So
Stability

The stability of an object can be increased by lowering the centre of mass and by
widening the base.
An object will topple over if the line of action of the weight falls outside of the base.
Unit 2
Lesson 4
Learning
Outcomes
Velocity and Acceleration

To be able to calculate distance and displacement and explain what they are
To be able to calculate speed and velocity and explain what they are
To be able to calculate acceleration and explain uniform and nonN. DWYER
uniform cases
Distance
(Also seen in Physics 2)

Distance is a scalar quantity. It is a
measure of the total length you have
moved.
Displacement
(Also seen in
Physics 2)
Displacement is a vector quantity. It is a
measure of how far you are from the
starting position.
If you complete a lap of an athletics track:

distance travelled = 400m
displacement = 0
Distance and Displacement are measured in metres, m
Speed

Speed is a measure of how the distance
changes with time. Since it is
dependent on speed it too is a scalar.
d
speed
t
Velocity

Velocity is measure of how the
displacement changes with time. Since
it depends on displacement it is a
vector too.
s
v
t
Speed and Velocity are is measured in metres per second, m/s
Acceleration (Also seen in Physics 2)
Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity changes. Since velocity is a vector quantity,
so is acceleration.
With all vectors, the direction is important. In questions we decide which direction is
positive (e.g. +ve)
If a moving object has a positive velocity: * a positive acceleration means an increase in
the velocity
* a negative acceleration means a decrease in the
velocity
(it begins the speed up in the other direction)
If a moving object has a negative velocity:
* a positive acceleration means an
increase in the velocity
(it begins the speed up in the other direction)
* a negative acceleration means a increase in the

velocity
If an object accelerates from a velocity of u to a velocity of v, and it takes t seconds to do it
(v u )
v
then we can write the equations as a
it may also look like this a
where
t
t
means the change in
Acceleration is measured in metres per second squared, m/s 2
Uniform Acceleration
In this situation the acceleration is constant the velocity changes by the same amount
each unit of time.
For example: If acceleration is 2m/s2, this means the velocity increases by 2m/s every
second.
Time (s)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Velocity (m/s)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Acceleration
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(m/s2)
Non-Uniform Acceleration
In this situation the acceleration is changing the velocity changes by a different amount
each unit of time.
For example:
Time (s)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Velocity (m/s)
0
2
6
10
18
28
30
44
Acceleration
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
(m/s2)
Unit 2
Lesson 5
Learning
Outcomes
Motion Graphs
To be able to interpret displacement-time and velocity-time graphs
To be able to represent motion with displacement-time and velocity-time graphs
To know the significance of the gradient of a line and the area under
N. DWYER
it
Before we look at the two types of graphs we use to represent motion, we must make sure we
know how to calculate the gradient of a line and the area under it.
Gradient
We calculate the gradient by choosing two points on the line and calculating the change in
the y axis (up/down) and the
y change in the x axis (across).
gradient
x
Area Under Graph
At this level we will not be asked to calculate the area under curves, only straight lines.
We do this be breaking the area into rectangles (base x height) and triangles ( base x
height).
Displacement-Time Graphs (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Graph A shows that the displacement stays at 3m, it is stationary.

Graph B shows that the displacement increases by the same amount each second, it is
travelling with constant velocity.
Graph C shows that the displacement covered each second increases each second, it is
accelerating.
y
s
Since gradient
and y = displacement and x = time gradient
x
t
gradient velocity
Velocity- Time Graphs
Graph A shows that the velocity stays at 4m/s, it is moving with constant velocity.
Graph B shows that the velocity increases by the same amount each second, it is
accelerating by the same amount each second (uniform acceleration).
Graph C shows that the velocity increases by a larger amount each second, the
acceleration is increasing (non-uniform acceleration).
y
v
Since gradient
and y = velocity and x = time gradient
x
t
gradient acceleration
area = base x height area = time x velocity
area = displacement
This graph show the velocity decreasing in one

direction and increasing in the opposite direction.
If we decide that is negative and is positive then
the graph tells us:
The object is initially travels at 5 m/s
It slows down by 1m/s every second
After 5 seconds the object has stopped
It then begins to move
It gains 1m/s every second until it is travelling at 5m/s
Equations of Motion
Unit 2
Lesson 6
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to use the four equations of motion

To know the correct units to be used
To be able to find the missing variable:, s u v a or t
N. DWYER
Defining Symbols
Before we look at the equations we need to assign letters to represent each variable
Displacement
=s
m
metres
Initial Velocity = u
m/s
metres per second
Final Velocity
=v
m/s
metres per second
Acceleration
=a
m/s2
metres per second per
second
Time
=t
s
seconds
Equations of Motion
Equation 1
If we start with the equation for acceleration a
(v u )
we can rearrange this to give us
t
an equation 1
at (v u ) at u v
v u at
Equation 2
We start with the definition of velocity and rearrange for
displacement
velocity = displacement / time displacement = velocity x
time
In situations like the graph to the right the velocity is
constantly changing, we need to use the average velocity.
displacement = average velocity x time
(u v)
The average velocity is give by:
average velocity =
2
We now substitute this into the equation above for displacement
(u v)
(u v )
s 12 (u v)t
t
displacement =
x time s
2
2
Equation 3
With Equations 1 and 2 we can derive an equation which eliminated v. To do this we
simply substitute v u at into s 12 (u v )t
s 12 (u (u at ))t
s 12 (2u at )t s 12 (2ut at 2 )
s ut 12 at 2
This can also be found if we remember that the area under a velocity-time graph
represents the distance travelled/displacement. The area under the line equals the area of
rectangle A + the area of triangle B.
(v u )
then at (v u ) so the
t
equation becomes s ut 12 ( at )t which then becomes equation 3
Area = Displacement = s = ut 12 (v u )t since a
Equation 4
If we rearrange equation 1 into t
(v u )
which we will then substitute into equation 2:
a
(v u )
as 12 (u v )(v u )
a
2as (v 2 uv uv u 2 ) 2as v 2 u 2
v 2 u 2 2as
s 12 (u v)t s 12 (u v)
Any question can be solved as long as three of the variables are given in the question.
Write down all the variables you have and the one you are asked to find, then see which
equation you can use.
These equations can only be used for motion with UNIFORM ACCELERATION.
Unit 2
Lesson 7
Learning
Outcomes
Terminal Velocity and

Projectiles
To know what terminal velocity is and how it occurs
To be know how vertical and horizontal motion are connected
To be able to calculate the horizontal and vertical distance travelled
by a projectile
Acceleration Due To Gravity
N. DWYER

An object that falls freely will accelerate towards the Earth because of the force of gravity
acting on it.
The size of this acceleration does not depend mass, so a feather and a bowling ball
accelerate at the same rate. On the Moon they hit the ground at the same time, on Earth
the resistance of the air slows the feather more than the bowling ball.
The size of the gravitational field affects the magnitude of the acceleration. Near the
surface of the Earth the gravitational field strength is 9.81 N/kg. This is also the
acceleration a free falling object would have on Earth. In the equations of motion a = g =
9.81 m/s.
Mass is a property that tells us how much matter it is made of.
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
Weight is a force caused by gravity acting on a mass:
w mg
weight = mass x gravitational field strength
Weight is measured in Newtons, N
Terminal Velocity (Also seen in GCSE
Physics 2)
If an object is pushed out of a plane it
will accelerate towards the ground
because of its weight (due to the Earths
gravity). Its velocity will increase as it
falls but as it does, so does the drag
forces acting on the object (air
resistance). Eventually the air resistance
will balance the weight of the object.
This means there will be no overall force
which means there will be no
acceleration. The object stops
accelerating and has reached its
terminal velocity.
Projectiles
An object kicked or thrown into the air will
follow a parabolic path like that shown to
the right.
If the object had an initial velocity of u,
this can be resolved into its horizontal and
vertical velocity (as we have seen in
Lesson 2)
The horizontal velocity will be ucos and the vertical velocity will be usin. With these we
can solve projectile questions using the equations of motion we already know.
Horizontal and Vertical Motion

The diagram shows two balls that are released at the same time, one is released and the
other has a horizontal velocity. We see that the ball shot from the cannon falls at the same
rate at the ball that was released. This is because the horizontal and vertical components
of motion are independent of each other.
Horizontal: The horizontal velocity is constant; we
see that the fired ball covers the same horizontal
(across) distance with each second.
Vertical: The vertical velocity accelerates at a rate
of g (9.81m/s2). We can see this more clearly in
the released ball; it covers more distance each
second.
The horizontal velocity has no affect on the
vertical velocity. If a ball were fired from the
cannon at a high horizontal velocity it would
travel further but still take the same time to reach the ground.
Newtons Laws
Unit 2
Lesson 8
Learning
Outcomes
To know and be able to use Newtons 1 st law of motion, where appropriate

To know and be able to use Newtons 2 nd law of motion, where appropriate
To know and be able to use Newtons 3 rd law of motion, where
N. DWYER
appropriate
Newtons 1st Law

An object will remain at rest, or continue to move with uniform velocity, unless it is acted
upon by an external resultant force.
Newtons 2nd Law

The rate of change of an objects linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant
external force. The change in the momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
Newtons 3rd Law

When body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body
A.
Force is measured in Newtons, N
Say What?
Newtons 1st Law

If the forward and backward forces cancel out, a stationary object will remain stationary.
If the forward forces are greater than the backwards forces, a stationary object will begin
to move forwards.
If the forward and backward forces cancel out, a moving object will continue to move with
constant velocity.
If the forward forces are greater than the backward forces, a moving object will speed up.
If the backward forces are greater than the forward forces, a moving object will slow
down.
Newtons 2nd Law
The acceleration of an object increases when the force is increased but decreases when
F
the mass is increased: a
but we rearrange this and use F ma
m
Newtons 3rd Law
Forces are created in pairs.
As you sit on the chair your weight pushes down on the chair, the chair also pushes up
against you.
As the chair rests on the floor its weight pushes down on the floor, the floor also pushes
up against the chair.
The forces have the same size but opposite directions.
Riding the Bus
Newtons 1st Law

You get on a bus and stand up. When the bus is stationary you feel no force, when the bus
accelerates you feel a backwards force. You want to stay where you are but the bus forces
you to move. When the bus is at a constant speed you feel no forwards or backwards
forces. The bus slows down and you feel a forwards force. You want to keep moving at the
same speed but the bus is slowing down so you fall forwards. If the bus turns left you
want to keep moving in a straight line so you are forced to the right (in comparison to the
bus). If the bus turns right you want to keep moving in a straight line so you are forced left
(in comparison to the bus).
Newtons 2nd Law
As more people get on the bus its mass increases, if the driving force of the buss engine
is constant we can see that it takes longer for the bus to gain speed.
Newtons 3rd Law
As you stand on the bus you are pushing down on the floor with a force that is equal to
your weight. If this was the only force acting you would begin to move through the floor.
The floor is exerting a force of equal magnitude but upwards (in the opposite direction).
Taking the Lift
Newtons 1st Law

When you get in the lift and when it moves at a constant speed you feel no force up or
down. When it sets off going up you feel like you are pushed down, you want to stay
where you are. When it sets off going down you feel like you are lighter, you feel pulled
up.
Newtons 2nd Law
As more people get in the lift its mass increases, if the lifting force is constant we can see
that it takes longer for the lift to get moving. Or we can see that with more people the
greater the lifting force must be.
Newtons 3rd Law
As you stand in the lift you push down on the floor, the floor pushes back.
Work, Energy and Power
Unit 2
Lesson 9
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate work done (including situations involving an inclined

plane)
To be able to calculate the power of a device
To be able to calculate efficiency and percentage efficiency
N. DWYER
Energy

We already know that it appears in a number of different forms and may be transformed
from one form to another. But what is energy? Energy is the ability to do work.
We can say that the work done is equal to the energy transferred
W E
Work done = energy transferred
Work Done

In Physics we say that work is done when a force moves through a distance and
established the equation
W Fs
Work Done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
Work Done is measured in Joules, J
Distance is measured in metres, m
The distance moved is not always in the direction of the force. In the diagram we can see
that the block moves in a direction that is away from the line of action of the force. To
calculate the work done we must calculate the distance we move in the direction of the
force or the size of the force in the direction of the distance moved. Both of these are
calculated by resolving into horizontal and vertical components.
Work Done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
Work Done = Size of Force in the direction of movement x Distance moved
Work Done = Fs cos
or
Power
(Also seen in GCSE Physics 1 and AS Unit 1)

Power is a measure of how quickly something can transfer energy. Power is linked to
energy by the equation:
Power is
EnergyTran sferred
E
measured in Watts, W
Power
P
timetaken
t
But Work Done = Energy Transferred so we can say that power is a measure of how
quickly work can be done.
WorkDone
W
Power
P
timetaken
t
Now that we can calculate Work Done we can derive another equation for calculating
power:
W
Fs
We can substitute W Fs into P
to become P
this can be separated into
t
t
s
PF .
t
s
v so we can write
P Fv
t
Velocity is measured in metres per second, m/s or ms-1
Efficiency (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
We already know that the efficiency of a device is a measure of how much of the energy
we put in is wasted.
Efficiency = useful energy transferred by the device
this will give us a
number less than 1
total energy supplied to the device
Useful energy means the energy transferred for a purpose, the energy transferred into
the desired form.
Since power is calculated from energy we can express efficiency as:
Efficiency = useful output power of the device
again this will give
us a number less than 1
input power to the device
To calculate the efficiency as a percentage use the following:
percentage efficiency = efficiency x 100%
Unit 2
Lesson 10
Learning
Outcomes
Conservation of Energy
To be able to calculate gravitational potential energy
To be able to calculate kinetic energy
To be able to solve problems involving the conversion of energy
N. DWYER
Energy Transformations

We already know that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one
type to another and transferred from one thing to another. Eg a speaker transforms
electrical energy to sound energy with the energy itself is being transferred to the
surroundings.
An isolated (or closed) system means an energy transformation is occurring where none
of the energy is lost to the surroundings. In reality all transformations/transfers are not
isolated, and all of them waste energy to the surroundings.
Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy a moving object has. Let us consider a car that accelerates
from being stationary (u=0) to travelling at a velocity v when a force, F, is applied.
v
The time it takes to reach this velocity is give by v u at v at t
a
v
The distance moved in this time is given by s 12 (u v )t s 12 (v)t s 12 (v)
a
v2
s 12
a
Energy transferred = Work Done, Work Done = Force x distance moved and Force = mass
x acceleration
v2
E K 12 mv 2
E W E Fs E mas E ma 12
a
Velocity is measured in metres per second, m/s
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
Kinetic Energy is measured in Joules, J
Gravitational Potential Energy

This type of potential (stored) energy is due to the position of an object. If an object of
mass m is lifted at a constant speed by a height of h we can say that the acceleration is
zero. Since F=ma we can also say that the overall force is zero, this means that the lifting
force is equal to the weight of the object F=mg
We can now calculate the work done in lifting the object through a height, h.
WD Fs WD ( mg ) h WD mgh
E P mgh
Since work done = energy transferred
Height is a measure of distance which is measured in metres, m
Gravitational Potential Energy is measured in Joules, J
Work Done against.

In many situations gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, or vice
versa. Some everyday examples of this are:
Swings and pendulums If we pull a pendulum back we give it GPE, when it is released it
falls, losing its GPE but speeding up and gaining KE. When it passes the lowest point of the
swing it begins to rise (gaining GPE) and slow down (losing KE).
Bouncing or throwing a ball Holding a ball in the air gives it GPE, when we release this it
transforms this into KE. As it rises it loses KE and gains GPE.
Slides and ramps A ball at the top of a slide will have GPE. When it reaches the bottom of
the slide it has lost all its GPE, but gained KE.
In each of these cases it appears as though we have lost energy. The pendulum doesnt
swing back to its original height and the ball never bounces to the height it was released
from. This is because work is being done against resistive forces.
The swing has to overcome air resistance whilst moving and the friction from the top
support.
The ball transforms some energy into sound and overcoming the air resistance.
Travelling down a slide transforms energy into heat due to friction and air resistance
The total energy before a transformation = The total energy after a
transformation
Unit 2
Lesson 11
Hookes Law
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to state Hookes Law and explain what the spring constant is
To be able to describe how springs behave in series and parallel
To be able to derive the energy stored in a stretched material
N. DWYER
Hookes Law
If we take a metal wire or a spring and hang it from the ceiling it will have a natural,
unstretched length of l metres. If we then attach masses to the bottom of the wire is will
begin to increase in length (stretch). The amount of length it has increased by we will call
the extension and represent by e.
If the extension increases proportionally to the force applied it follows Hookes Law:
The force needed to stretch a spring is directly proportional to the extension of the spring
from its natural length
So it takes twice as much force to extend a spring twice as far and half the force to extend
it half as far.
F ke
We can write this in equation form:
F e
or
Here k is the constant that shows us how much extension in length we would get for a
given force. It is called...
The Spring Constant

The spring constant gives us an idea of the stiffness (or stretchiness)
of the material.
F
If we rearrange Hookes Law we get: k
e
If we record the length of a spring, add masses to the bottom and
measure its extension we can plot a graph of force against extension.
The gradient of this graph will be equal to the spring constant.
A small force causes a large extension the spring constant will be
small very stretchy
A large force causes a small extension the spring constant will be large not stretchy
Spring Constant is measured in Newtons per metre, N/m
Springs in Series
The combined spring constant of spring A and spring B connected in
series is given by:
1
1
1
If A and B are identical this becomes:

kT
k A kB
1
1 1
1
2

kT k k
kT
k
k
kT
2
Since this gives us a smaller value for the spring constant, applying
the same force produces a larger extension.
It is
stretchier
Springs in Parallel
The combined spring constant of spring A and spring B connected in
parallel is:
kT k A k B so if A and B are identical this becomes:
kT k k
kT 2k
Since this gives us a larger value for the spring constant applying the same force
produces a smaller extension. It is less stretchy
Energy Stored
(Elastic Strain Energy)

We can calculate the energy stored in a stretched material by considering the work done
on it.
We defined work done as the force x distance moved in the direction of the force or
W Fs
Work done is equal to the energy transferred, in this case transferred to the material, so:
E Fs
E Fe
The distance moved is the extension of the material, e, making the equation:
The force is not constant; it increases from zero to a maximum of F. The average force is
( F 0)
given by:
2
( F 0)
e which simplifies to:
If we bring these terms together we get the equation E
2
E 12 Fe
This is also equal to the area under the graph of force against extension.
We can write a second version of this equation by substituting our top equation of F ke
into the one above.
E 12 Fe
E 12 (ke)e
E 12 ke 2
Stress and Strain
Unit 2
Lesson 12
Learning
Outcomes
To know what stress is, be able to explain it, calculate it and state its units
To know what strain is, be able to explain it, calculate it and state its units
To be able to calculate the elastic strain energy per unit volume
N. DWYER
Deforming Solids
Forces can be used to change the speed, direction and shape of an object. This section of
Physics looks at using forces to change of shape of a solid object, either temporarily or
permanently.
If a pair of forces are used to squash a material we say that they are compressive forces.
If a pair of forces is used to stretch a material we say that they are tensile forces.
Tensile Stress,
Tensile stress is defined as the force applied per unit cross-sectional area (which is the
same as pressure).
This is represented by the equations:
F
F

stress
A
A
The largest tensile stress that can be applied to a material before it breaks is called the
ultimate tensile stress (UTS). Nylon has an UTS of 85 MPa whilst Stainless steel has a
value of 600 MPa and Kevlar a massive 3100 MPa
Stress is measured in Newtons per metre squared, N/m 2 or N m-2
Stress can also be measured in Pascals, Pa
A tensile stress will cause a tensile strain.
Stress causes
Strain
Tensile Strain,
Tensile strain is a measure of how the extension of a material compares to the original,
unstretched length.
This is represented by the equations:
e
e

strain
l
l
Steel wire will undergo a strain of 0.01 before it breaks. This means it will stretch by 1% of
its original length then break. Spider silk has a breaking strain of between 0.15 and 0.30,
stretching by 30% before breaking
Strain has no units, it is a ratio of two lengths
Stress-Strain Graphs
A stress-strain graph is very useful for comparing different materials.
Here we can see how the strain of two materials, a and b, changes
when a stress is applied.
If we look at the dotted lines we can see that the same amount of
stress causes a bigger strain in b than in a. This means that b will
increase in length more than a (compared to their original lengths).
Elastic Strain Energy

We can build on the idea of energy stored from the previous lesson now that we know
what stress and strain are. We can work out the amount of elastic strain energy that is
stored per unit volume of the material.
E 12 stress strain
It is given by the equation:
There are two routes we can take to arrive at this result:
Equations
If we start with the equation for the total energy stored in the material: E 12 Fe
V Al
The volume of the material is given by:
Now divide the total energy stored by the volume: E
1
2
Fe
which can be written as:
Al
F e
Al
If we compare the equation to the equations we know for stress and strain we see that:
E
1
2
E 12 stress strain
Graphs
The area under a stress-strain graph gives us the elastic strain energy per unit volume
(m3). The area is given by:
A 12 base height
A 12 strain stress or
A 12 stress strain
E 12 stress strain
Bulk Properties of Solids
Unit 2
Lesson 13
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate density and explain what it is

To be able to explain what elastic, plastic, yield point, breaking stress, stiff,
ductile and brittle are
To be able to label these qualities on stress-strain graphs
N. DWYER
Density,
Density is the mass per unit volume of a material, a measure of how much mass
m
each cubic metre of volume contains. Density if given by the equation:

V
Where is density, m is mass in kilograms and V is volume in metres cubed.
3
Density is measured in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m or kg m-3
Elasticity
Materials extend in length when a stress is applied to them (masses hung from them). A
material can be described as elastic if it returns to its original length when the stress is
removed. They obey Hookes Law as extension is proportional to the force applied.
Limit of Proportionality, P
Up to this point the material obeys Hookes Law; extension is proportional to the force
applied.
Elastic Limit, E
The elastic limit is the final point where the material will return to its original length if we
remove the stress which is causing the extension (take the masses off). There is no
change to the shape or size of the material.
We say that the material acts plastically beyond its elastic limit.
Yield Point, Y
Beyond the elastic limit a point is reached where small increases in stress cause a
massive increase in extension (strain). The material will not return to its original length
and behaves like a plastic.
Plasticity
Materials extend in length when a stress is applied to them (masses hung from them). A
material can be described as plastic if it does not return to its original length when the
stress is removed. There is a permanent change to its shape
Breaking Stress Ultimate Tensile Strength, UTS
This is the maximum amount of stress that can be applied to the material without making
it break. It is sometimes referred to as the strength of the material.
Breaking Point, B
This is (surprisingly?) the point where the material breaks.
Stifness
If different materials were made into wires of equal dimensions, the stiffer materials bend
the least.
Stiff materials have low flexibility
Ductility
A ductile material can be easily and permanently stretched. Copper is a good example, it
can easily be drawn out into thin wires. This can be seen in graph d below.
Brittleness
A brittle material will extend obeying Hookes Law when a stress is applied to it. It will
suddenly fracture with no warning sign of plastic deformation. Glass, pottery and
chocolate are examples of brittle materials.
In the first graph we see a material that stretches, shows plastic behaviour and eventually
breaks.
In the second graph we can see that material a is stiffer than material b because the
same stress causes a greater strain in b.
In the third graph we see materials c and e are brittle because they break without
showing plastic behaviour.
The fourth graph shows how a material can be permanently deformed, the wire does not
return to its original length when the stress is removed (the masses have been removed).
Unit 2
Lesson 14
Learning
Outcomes
The Young Modulus

To know what the Young Modulus is, be able to explain it, calculate it and state
its units
To be able to describe an experiment for finding the Young Modulus
To be able to calculate the Young Modulus from a stress-strain graph
N. DWYER
The Young Modulus, E

The Young Modulus can be thought of as the stiffness constant of a material, a measure of
how much strain will result from a stress being applied to the material. It can be used to
compare the stiffness of different materials even though their dimensions are not the
same.
The Young Modulus only applies up to the limit of proportionality of a material.
stress
YoungModul us
E
or in equation terms we have
strain
F
e
We have equations for stress
and strain which makes the equation look like
A
l
F
A
E
this:
e

l
Fl
F l
E
which becomes:
An easier way of writing this is E
Ae
A e
The Young Modulus is measured in Newtons per metre squares, N/m 2 or N m-2
The Young Modulus of a material can be found from its stress-strain graph.
y
stress
, this becomes gradient
for our graph. Our top equation stated
x
strain
stress
that YoungModul us
so we see that the gradient of a stress-strain graph gives us
strain
the Young Modulus.
This only applied to the straight line section of the graph, where gradient (and Young
Modulus) are constant.
Since gradient
Measuring the Young Modulus

Here is a simple experimental set up for finding the Young Modulus of a material.
A piece of wire is held by a G-clamp,
sent over a pulley with the smallest
mass attached to it. This should
keep it straight without extending it.
Measure the length from the clamp
to the pointer. This is the original
length (unstretched).
Use a micrometer to measure the
diameter of the wire in several places. Use this to calculate the cross-sectional area of
the wire.
Add a mass to the loaded end of the wire.
Record the extension by measuring how far the pointer has
moved from its start position.
Repeat for several masses but ensuring the elastic limit is not
reached.
Remove the masses, one at a time taking another set of
reading of the extension.
Calculate stress and strain for each mass.
Plot a graph of stress against strain and calculate the gradient
of the line which gives the Young Modulus.
Here is a more precise way of finding the Young Modulus but
involves taking the same measurements of extension and force
applied.
It is called Searles apparatus.
Progressive Waves
Unit 2
Lesson 15
Learning
Outcomes
To be know the basic measurements of a wave

To be able to calculate the speed of any wave
To be know what phase and path difference are and be able to
calculate them
N. DWYER
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and all transfer energy without transferring matter.
This means that a water wave can transfer energy to you sitting on the shore without the
water particles far out to sea moving to the
beach.
Here is a diagram of a wave; it is one type of
wave called a transverse wave. A wave consists
of something (usually particles) oscillating from
an equilibrium point. The wave can be described
as progressive; this means it is moving outwards from the source.
We will now look at some basic measurements and characteristics or waves.
Amplitude, A
Amplitude is measured in
metres, m
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles from the
equilibrium position.
Wavelength,
Wavelength is measured in
metres, m
The wavelength of a wave is the length of one whole cycle. It can be measured between
two adjacent peaks, troughs or any point on a wave and the same point one wave later.
Time Period, T
Time Period is measured in
seconds, s
This is simply the time is takes for one complete wave to happen. Like wavelength it can
be measured as the time it takes between two adjacent peaks, troughs or to get back to
the same point on the wave.
Frequency, f
Frequency is measured in
Hertz, Hz
Frequency is a measure of how often something happens, in this case how many complete
waves occur in every second. It is linked to time period of the wave by the following
1
1
f
equations: T
and
f
T
Wave Speed, c
Wave Speed is measured in metres
per second, m s-1
The speed of a wave can be calculated using the following equations: c f
Here c represents the speed of the wave, f the frequency and the wavelength.
Phase Diference
Phase Difference is measured in
radians, rad
If we look at two particles a wavelength apart (such as C and G) we would see that they
are oscillating in time with each other. We say that they are completely in phase. Two
points half a wavelength apart (such as I and K) we would see that they are always
moving in opposite directions. We say that they are completely out of phase.
The phase difference between two points depends on what fraction of a wavelength lies
between them
Phase Difference
from A (radians)
Phase Difference
from A (degrees)
Path Diference
90
180
270
360
450
540
108
0
Path Difference is measured in
630
720
810
900
990
wavelengths,
If two light waves leave a bulb and hit a screen the difference in how far the waves have
travelled is called the path difference. Path difference is measured in terms of
wavelengths.
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
Path Difference
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2 3
from A
So two waves leaving A with one making it to F and the other to J will have a path
difference of 1 wavelength (1).
Unit 2
Lesson 16
Learning
Outcomes
Longitudinal and Transverse

Waves
To be able explain the differences between longitudinal and transverse waves
To know examples of each
To be explain what polarisation is and how it proves light is a
N. DWYER
transverse wave
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and all transfer energy without transferring matter.
This means that a sound wave can transfer energy to your eardrum from a far speaker
without the air particles by the speaker moving into your ear. We will now look at the two
types of waves and how they are different
Longitudinal Waves
Here is a longitudinal wave; the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation
(travel).
Where the particles are close together we call a compression and where they are spread
we call a rarefaction.
The wavelength is the distance from one compression or rarefaction to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position
to the right of left.
Example:
sound waves
Transverse Waves
Here is a transverse wave; the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Where the particles are displaced above the equilibrium position we call a peak and below
we call a trough.
The wavelength is the distance from one peak or trough to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position
up or
down.
Examples: water waves,

Mexican waves and
waves of the EM spectrum
EM waves are produced from varying electric and magnetic field.
Polarisation
Polarisation restricts the oscillations of a wave to one plane. In the diagrams the light is
initially oscillating in all directions. A piece of Polaroid only allows light to
oscillate in the same direction as it.
In the top diagram the light passes through a vertical plane
Polaroid and becomes polarized in the vertical plane. This
can then pass through the second vertical Polaroid.
In the middle diagram the light becomes polarized in
the horizontal plane.
In the bottom diagram the light becomes vertically
polarized but this cannot pass through a horizontal
plane Polaroid.
This is proof that the waves of the EM spectrum are
transverse waves. If they were longitudinal waves the
forwards and backwards motion would not be stopped
by crossed pieces of Polaroid; the bottom set up would
emit light.
Applications
TV aerials get the best reception when they point to the transmission source so they
absorb the maximum amount of the radio waves.
Unit 2
Lesson 17
Learning
Outcomes
Superposition and Standing

Waves
To know and be able to explain what standing waves are and how they are
formed
To know what nodes and antinodes are
To be able to sketch the standing wave produced at different
N. DWYER
frequencies
Superposition
Here are two waves that have amplitudes of 1.0 travelling in opposite directions:
Superposition is the process by which two waves combine into a single wave form when
they overlap.
If we add these waves together the resultant depends on where the peaks of the waves
are compared to each other. Here are three examples of what the resultant could be: a
wave with an amplitude of 1.5, no resultant wave at all and a wave with an amplitude of
2.0
Stationary/Standing Waves
When two similar waves travel in opposite directions
they can superpose to form a standing (or stationary)
wave. Here is the experimental set up of how we can
form a standing wave on a string. The vibration
generator sends waves down the string at a certain
frequency, they reach the end of the string and
reflect back at the same frequency. On their way
back the two waves travelling in opposite direction
superpose to form a standing wave made up of
nodes and antinodes.
Nodes
Positions on a standing wave which do not
vibrate. The waves combine to give zero
displacement
Antinodes Positions on a standing wave where there is a maximum displacement.
Amplitude
Frequency
Waveleng
th
Phase
Energy
Standing Waves
Maximum at antinode and zero at
nodes
All parts of the wave have the same
frequency
Twice the distance between adjacent
nodes
All points between two adjacent nodes
in phase
No energy translation
Progressive Waves
The same for all parts of the wave
All parts of the wave have the same
frequency
The distance between two adjacent
peaks
Points one wavelength apart in phase
Energy translation in the direction of
the wave
Waveform
Does not move forward
Moves forwards
Harmonics
As we increase the frequency of the vibration generator we
will see standing waves being set up. The first will occur when
the generator is vibrating at the fundamental frequency, f0, of
the string.
First Harmonic
f = f0
=2L
2 nodes and 1 antinode
Second Harmonic
f = 2f0 = L
3 nodes and 2 antinodes
Third Harmonic
f = 3f0 = L
Forth Harmonic
f = 4f0 = L
Refraction
Unit 2
Lesson 18
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the refractive index of a material and to know what it tells
us
To be able to describe and explain the direction light takes when entering a
different material
To be able to calculate the relative refractive index of a boundary
N. DWYER
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a material is a measure of how easy it is for light to travel through
it. The refractive index of material s can be calculated using:
c
n
cs
where n is the refractive index, c is the speed of light in a vacuum and cs is the speed of
light in material s.
Refractive Index, n, has no units
c
c
n
If light can travel at c in material x then the refractive index is:
n
cx
c
n 1
If light can travel at c/2 in material y then the refractive index is:
n2
cy
c
c
2
The higher the refractive index the slower light can travel through it
The higher the refractive index the denser the material
Bending Light
When light passes from one material to another it is not only
the speed of the light that changes, the direction can change
too.
If the ray of light is incident at 90 to the material then there
is no change in direction, only speed.
It may help to imagine the front of the ray of light as the front of a car to determine the
direction the light will bend. Imagine a lower refractive index as grass and a higher
refractive index at mud.
Entering a Denser Material
The car travels on grass until tyre A reaches the mud. It is harder to
move through mud so A slows down but B can keep moving at the
same speed as before. The car now points in a new direction.
Denser material higher refractive index bends towards the
Normal
Entering a Less Dense Material
The car travels in mud until tyre A reaches the grass. It is easier to
move across grass so A can speed up but B keeps moving at the
same speed as before. The car now points in a new direction.
Less dense material lower refractive index bends away from the Normal
Relative Refractive Index

Whenever two materials touch the boundary between them will
have a refractive index dependent on the refractive indices of
the two materials. We call this the relative refractive index.
When light travels from material 1 to material 2 we can
calculate the relative refractive index of the boundary using any
of the following:
n
c
sin 1
n2 2 1
n1 c 2 sin 2
Relative Refractive
Index, 1n2, has no units
Some questions may involve light travelling through
several layers of materials. Tackle one boundary at a
time.
n g c w sin w
w ng
n w c g sin g
---------------------------->
na c g sin g
g na
n g c a sin a
---------------------------->
Unit 2
1
Total Internal Reflection
Lesson 19
Learning
Outcomes
To know what the critical angle is and be able to calculate it

To be able to explain what fibre optics are and how they are used
To be able to explain how cladding helps improve the efficiency of a
fibre optic
N. DWYER
Total Internal Reflection

We know that whenever light travels from one material to another the majority of the light
refracts but a small proportion of the light also reflects off the boundary and stays in the
first material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle less than the critical angle the
light refracts into the second material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle equal to the critical angle all the
light is sent along the boundary between the two materials.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle all
the light is reflected and none refracts, we say it is total internal reflection has occurred.
Critical Angle

We can derive an equation that connects the critical angle with the refractive indices of
the materials.
sin 1 n2
sin 2 n1
sin 1 n2
1
n1
but at the critical angle 2 is equal to 90 which makes sin2 = 1
1 is the critical angle which we represent as C making the equation:
sin C
n2
n1
sin C
When the second material is air n2 = 1, so the equation becomes:

n1
1
n1
or
1
sin C
Optical Fibres/Fibre Optics

An optical fibre is a thin piece of flexible glass. Light
can travel down it due to total internal reflection. Thier
uses include:
*Communication such as phone and TV signals: they
can carry more information that electricity in copper
wires.
*Medical endoscopes: they allow us to see down them
and are flexible so they dont cause injury to the patient.
Cladding
Cladding is added to the outside of an optical fibre to
reduce the amount of light that is lost. It does this by
giving the light rays a second chance at TIR as seen in
the diagram.
It does increase the critical angle but the shortest path
through the optical fibre is straight through, so only
letting light which stays in the core means the signal is
transmitted quicker.
Consider the optical fibre with a refractive index of 1.5
sin C
Without cladding n2 = 1
n2
n1
sin C
1
1 .5
C 41.8
n2
n1
1.4
C 69.0
1.5
If the cladding had a lower refractive index than the core it is easier for light to travel
through so the light would bend away from the normal,
Total Internal Reflection.
If the cladding had a higher refractive index than the core it is harder for light to travel
through so the light would bend towards the normal, Refraction.
With cladding n2 = 1.4 sin C
Interference
Unit 2
Lesson 20
Learning
Outcomes
sin C
To be able to explain what interference and coherence is

To be able to explain Youngs double slit experiment and a double source
experiment
To be able to use the equation to describe the appearance of fringes
N. DWYER
produced
Interference
Interference is a special case of superposition where the waves that combine are
coherent. The waves overlap and form a repeating interference pattern of maxima and
minima areas. If the waves werent coherent the interference pattern would change
rapidly and continuously.
Coherence: Waves which are of the same frequency, wavelength, polarisation and amplitude
and in a constant phase relationship. A laser is a coherent source but a light bulb is not.
Constructive Interference: The path difference between the waves is a whole number of
wavelengths so the waves arrive in phase adding together to give a large wave. 2 peaks
overlap
Destructive Interference: The path difference between the waves is a half number of
wavelengths so the waves arrive out of phase cancelling out to give no wave at all.
A
peak and trough overlap
Youngs Double Slit Experiment

In 1803 Thomas Young settled a debate started over 100 years earlier between
Newton and Huygens by demonstrating the interference of light. Newton
thought that light was made up of tiny particles called corpuscles and
Huygens thought that light was a wave,
Youngs interference of light proves light is a
wave. Here is Youngs double slit set up, the
two slits act as coherent sources of waves
Interference occurs where the light from the
two slits overlaps. Constructive interference
produces bright areas, while deconstructive
interference produces dark areas. These
areas are called interference fringes.
Fringes
There is a central bright fringe directly
behind the midpoint between the slits with
more fringes evenly spaced and parallel to
the slits.
As we move away from the centre of the
screen we see the intensity of the bright
fringes decreases.
Double Source Experiment

The interference of sound is easy to demonstrate with two speakers connected to the
same signal generator. Waves of the same frequency (coherent) interfere with each other.
Constructive interference produces loud fringes, while deconstructive interference
produces quiet fringes.
Derivation
We can calculate the separation of the
fringes (w) if we consider the diagram to the
right which shows the first bright fringe
below the central fringe. The path difference
between the two waves is equal to one
whole wavelength () for constructive
interference.
If the distance to the screen (D) is massive
compared to the separation of the sources (s) the angle () in the large triangle can be
assumed the same as the angle in the smaller triangle.
Opposite
w
sin
For the small triangle: sin
For the large triangle: sin
Hypotenuse
s
D
w
w
sin
Since the angles are the same we can write

or
which rearranges
D
s
D s
D
w
to:
s
Fringe Separation, Source Separation, Distance to Screen and Wavelength are
measured in metres, m
Diffraction
Unit 2
Lesson 21
Learning
Outcomes
To know what diffraction is and when it happens the most

To be able to sketch the diffraction pattern from a single slit and a diffraction
grating
N. DWYER
To be able to derive dsin=n
Difraction
When waves pass through a gap
they spread out, this is called
diffraction. The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the wavelength compared to
the size of the gap.
In the first diagram the gap is several times wider than the wavelength so the wave only
spreads out a little.
In the second diagram the gap is closer to the wavelength so it begins to spread out more.
In the third diagram the gap is now roughly the same size as the wavelength so it spreads
out the most.
Difraction Patterns
Here is the diffraction pattern from light being shone through a
single slit. There is a central maximum that is twice as wide as
the others and by far the brightest. The outer fringes are
dimmer and of equal width.
If we use three, four or more slits the interference maxima
become brighter, narrower and further apart.
Difraction Grating
A diffraction grating is a series of narrow, parallel
slits. They usually have around 500 slits per mm.
When light shines on the diffraction grating several
bright sharp lines can be seen as shown in the
diagram to the right.
The first bright line (or interference maximum) lies
directly behind where the light shines on the grating.
We call this the zero-order maximum. At an angle of
from this lies the next bright line called the firstorder maximum and so forth.
The zero-order maximum (n=0)
There is no path difference between neighbouring waves. They arrive in phase and
interfere constructively.
The first-order maximum (n=1)
There is a path difference of 1 wavelength between
neighbouring waves. They arrive in phase and
The second-order maximum (n=2)
There is a path difference of 2 wavelengths between
neighbouring waves. They arrive in phase and
Between the maxima
The path difference is not a whole number of
wavelengths so the waves arrive out of phase and interfere destructively.
Derivation
The angle to the maxima depends on the wavelength of the light and the
separation of the slits. We can derive an equation that links them by
taking a closer look at two neighbouring waves going to the first-order
maximum.
The distance to the screen is so much bigger than the distance between
two slits that emerging waves appear to be parallel and can be treated
that way.
Consider the triangle to the right.
Opposite
sin
sin
d sin
Hypotenuse
d
For the nth order the opposite side of the triangle becomes n, making
the equation:
d sin n
A2 Physics
Unit 4
Unit 5
Fields and Further Mechanics
Nuclear and Thermal Physics
1 Momentum and Collisions
1 Rutherford Scattering
2 Force and Impulse
2 Ionising Radiation
3 Circular Motion
3 Radioactive Decay
4 Centripetal Force and Acceleration
4 Modes of Decay
5 Simple Harmonic Motion
5 Nuclear Radius
6 SHM Graphs
6 Mass and Energy
7 SHM Time Periods
7 Fission and Fusion
8 Resonance and Damping
8 Nuclear Reactors
9 Gravitational Fields
9 Nuclear Safety Aspects
10 Gravitational Potential
10 Heat, Temperature and Internal Energy
11 Orbits and Escape Velocity
11 The Specifics
12 Electric Fields
12 Gas Laws
13 Electric Potential
13 Ideal Gas
14 Fields Comparison
14 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model
15 Capacitors
16 Charging and Discharging
17 Exponential Decay
18 Force on a Current Carrying Wire
19 Force on a Charged Particle
20 Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
21 Electromagnetic Induction
22 Transformers
Unit 4
Lesson 1
Momentum and Collisions
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate momentum and know the units

To be able to explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions
To be able to find the velocity of an object after a collision or
N. DWYER
explosion
Momentum

The momentum of an object is given by the equation:
momentum = mass x velocity
p mv
Since it depends on the velocity and not speed, momentum is a vector quantity. If we
assign a direction to be positive for example if was positive, an object with negative
velocity would be moving . It would also have a negative momentum.
Momentum is measured in kilogram metres per second, kg m/s or kg m s-1
Conservation

In an isolated system (if no external forces are acting) the linear momentum is conserved.
We can say that:
the total momentum before = the total momentum after
The total momentum before and after what? A collision or an explosion.
Collisions

There are two types of collisions; in both cases the momentum is conserved.
Elastic kinetic energy in conserved, no energy is transferred to the surroundings
If a ball is dropped, hits the floor and bounces back to the same height it would be an
elastic collision with the floor. The kinetic energy before the collision is the same as the
kinetic energy after the collision.
Inelastic kinetic energy is not conserved, energy is transferred to the surroundings
If a ball is dropped, hits the floor and bounces back to a lower height than released it
would be an inelastic collision. The kinetic energy before the collision would be greater
than the kinetic energy after the collision.
Before
After
In the situation above, car 1 and car 2 travel to the right with initial velocities u1 and u2
respectively. Car 1 catches up to car 2 and they collide. After the collision the cars
continue to move to the right but car 1 now travels at velocity v1 and car 2 travels a
velocity v2. [ is positive]
Since momentum is conserved the total momentum before the crash = the total
momentum after the crash.
The total momentum before is the momentum of A + the momentum of B
The total momentum after is the new momentum of A + the new momentum of B
We can represent this with the equation: m1u1 m2 u 2 m1v1 m2 v 2
Explosions

We look at explosions in the same way as we look at collisions, the total momentum
before is equal to the total momentum after. In explosions the total momentum before is
zero. [ is positive]
Before
After
If we look at the example above we can see that the whole system is not moving, so the
momentum before is zero. After the explosion the shell travels right with velocity v2 and
the cannon recoils with a velocity v1.
m1u1 m2 u 2 m1v1 m2 v 2
The momentum of the system is given as:
0 m1v1 m2 v 2
So the equation for this diagram would be:
0 m1v1 m2 v 2 m1v1 m2 v 2
But remember, v1 is negative so:
Force and Impulse
Unit 4
Lesson 2
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate force from change in momentum

To be able to explain and calculate impulse
To know the significance of the area under a force-time graph
N. DWYER
Force

If we start at F = ma we can derive an equation that links force and momentum.
(v u )
F ma we can replace a in this equation with a
from Unit 2
t
(v u )
F m
multiplying out makes the equation
t
mv mu
( mv)
F
F
or
where means the change in
t
t
This states that the force is a measure of change of momentum with respect to time. This
is Newtons Second Law of Motion:
The rate of change of an objects linear momentum is directly proportional to the
resultant external force. The change in the momentum takes place in the direction of
the force.
If we have a trolley and we increase its velocity from rest to 3m/s in 10 seconds, we know
that it takes a bigger force to do the same with a trolley thats full of shopping. Ever tried
turning a trolley around a corner when empty and then when full?
Car Safety (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Many of the safety features of a car rely on the above equation. Airbags, seatbelts and the
crumple zone increase the time taken for the car and the people inside to stop moving.
Increasing the time taken to change the momentum to zero reduces the force
experienced.
Catching
An Egg: If we held our hand out and didnt move it the egg would smash. The change in
momentum happens in a short time, making the force large. If we cup the egg and move
our hands down as we catch it we make it take longer to come to a complete stop.
Increasing the time taken decreases the force and the egg remains intact.
Cricket Ball: If we didnt move our hands it would hurt when the ball stopped in our hands.
If we make it take longer to stop we reduce the force on our hands from the ball.
Impulse
mv mu
multiply both sides by t
Ft mv mu
t
(mv)
F
multiply both sides by t
Ft (mv)
t
We now have an equation for impulse. Impulse is the product of the force and the time it
is applied for.
An impulse causes a change in momentum.
Impulse is measured in Newton seconds, Ns
F
Since Ft (mv) , the same impulse (same force applied for the same amount of time)
can be applied to a small mass to cause a large velocity or to a large mass to cause a
small velocity
Ft =
m= v
v
Force-Time Graphs
The impulse can be calculated from a force-time

graph, it is the same as the area under the graph.
The area of the first graph is given by:
height x length = Force x time = Impulse
Circular Motion
Unit 4
Lesson 3
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the angular displacement of an object moving in a circle

To be able to calculate the angular speed of an object moving in a circle
To be able to calculate the speed of an object moving in a circle
N. DWYER
To the right is the path a car is taking as it moves in a circle of

radius r.
Angular Displacement,
As the car travels from X to Y it has travelled a distance of s and
has covered a section of the complete circle it will make. It has
covered and angle of which is called the angular displacement.
arc
s
r
radius
Angular Displacement is measured in radians, rad
Radians
1 radian is the angle made when the arc of a circle is equal to the radius.
For a complete circle
arc
radius
circumfere nce
radius
2r
r
2
A complete circle is 360 so
360 = 2 rad
1 = 0.017 rad
57.3 = 1 rad
Angular Speed,
Angular speed is the rate of change of angular displacement, or the angle that is covered
every second.
t
Angular Speed is measured in radians per second, rad/s or rad s-1
Frequency, f
Frequency is the number of complete circles that occur every
second.
For one circle; 2 , if we substitute this into the equation above
2
we get
t
This equation says that the angular speed (angle made per second)
is equal to one circle divided by the time taken to do it. Very similar
to speed = distance/time
Since f
1
the above equation can be written as 2f
T
Frequency is measures in Hertz, Hz
Speed, v
The velocity of the car is constantly changing because the direction is constantly
changing. The speed however, is constant and can be calculated.
s
v
If we rearrange the top equation we can get r s , the speed
t
then becomes
v
r
t
Now if we rearrange the second equation we get t , the
equation becomes
v
rt
t
Cancel the ts and we finally arrive at our equation for the speed.
v r
Speed is measured in metres per second, m/s or m s-1
Centripetal Force and

Acceleration
Unit 4
Lesson 4
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the centripetal acceleration of an object moving in a circle

To be able to calculate the centripetal force that keeps an object moving in a
circle
To be able to explain why the centrifugal force does not exist
N. DWYER
Moving in a Circle (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)

For an object to continue to move in a circle a force is needed that acts on the object
towards the centre of the circle. This is called the centripetal force and is provided by a
number of things:
For a satellite orbiting the Earth it is provided by gravitational attraction.
For a car driving around a roundabout it is provided by the friction between the
wheels and the road.
For a ball on a string being swung in a circle it is provided by the tension in the
string.
Centripetal force acts from the body to the centre of a circle
Since F=ma the object must accelerate in the same direction as the resultant force. The
object is constantly changing its direction towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal acceleration has direction from the body to the centre of the circle
Centrifugal Force
Some people thought that an object moving in a circle would experience the centripetal
force acting from the object towards the centre of the circle and the centrifugal force
acting from the object away from the centre of the circle.
They thought this because if you sit on a roundabout as it spins it feels like you are being
thrown off backwards.
If someone was watching from the side they would see you try and move in a straight line
but be pulled in a circle by the roundabout.
The centrifugal force does not exist in these situations.
Centripetal Acceleration
The centripetal acceleration of an object can
be derived if we look at the situation to the
right. An object of speed v makes an angular
displacement of in time t.
v
a
t
If we look at the triangle at the far right we can use
s
when is small. This becomes:
r
v
v
We can rearrange this to give:
v v
v
Acceleration is given by a
substitute the above equation into this one
t
v
a
this is the same as a v
t
t
In lesson 3 (Circular Motion) we established that

, substitute this into the equation
t
above

If we use
a v
v r we can derive two more equations for acceleration

v2
a v
a
a r 2
r
Centripetal Acceleration is measured in metres per second squared, m/s 2 or m s-
Centripetal Force
We can derive three equations for the centripetal force by using F ma and the three
equations of acceleration from above.
v2
F mv
F m
F mr 2
r
Centripetal Force is measured in Newtons, N
Simple Harmonic Motion
Unit 4
Lesson 5
Learning
Outcomes
To know what simple harmonic motion is

To be able to describe the acceleration of an SHM system
To be able to calculate the displacement, velocity and acceleration
of an SHM system
N. DWYER
Oscillations
In each of the cases below there is something that is oscillating, it vibrates back and forth
or up and down.
Each of these systems is demonstrating Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
SHM Characteristics
The equilibrium point is where the object comes to rest, in the simple pendulum it at its
lowest point.
If we displace the object by a displacement of x there will be a force that brings the object
back to the equilibrium point. We call this the restoring force and it always acts in the
opposite direction to the displacement.
We can represent this as:
F x
a x
Since F ma we can also write:
For an object to be moving with simple harmonic motion, its acceleration must satisfy two
conditions:
*The acceleration is proportional to the displacement
*The acceleration is in the opposite direction to the displacement (towards the
equilibrium point)
Equations
The following equations are true for all SHM systems but let us use the
simple pendulum when thinking about them.
The pendulum bob is displaced in the negative direction when at point
1, it is released and swings through point 2 at its maximum speed until
it reaches point 3 where it comes to a complete stop. It then swings to
the negative direction, reaches a maximum speed at 4 and completes
a full cycle when it stops at 5.
Displacement, x
The displacement of the bob after a time t is given by the equation: x A cos 2ft
(CALCS IN RAD)
1
1
t
x A cos 2 t
x A cos 2
Since f
the equation can become:
T
T
T
(where t is the time into the cycle and T is the time for one complete cycle)
The maximum displacement is called the amplitude, A.
MAXIMUM
xA
Velocity, v
The velocity of the bob at a displacement of x is given by the equation:
v 2f
A2 x 2
The maximum velocity occurs in the middle of the swing (2 and 4) when displacement is
zero (x = 0)
v 2fA
v 2f A 2 0 2
v 2f A 2 x 2
v 2f A 2
MAXIMUM
Acceleration, a
The acceleration of the bob at a displacement of x is given by the equation: a (2f ) 2 x
As discussed before the acceleration acts in the opposite direction to the displacement.
The maximum acceleration occurs at the ends of the swing (1, 3 and 5) when the
displacement is equal to the amplitude (x = A).
a ( 2f ) 2 x
a ( 2f ) 2 A
MAXIMUM
SHM Graphs
Unit 4
Lesson 6
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to sketch the graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration for a

simple pendulum
To be know what the gradients represent
To be able to explain the energy in a full cycle and sketch the graph
N. DWYER
Pendulum
Consider the simple pendulum drawn below. When released from A
the bob accelerates and moves to the centre point. When it reached
B it has reached a maximum velocity in the positive direction and
then begins to slow down. At C it has stopped completely so the
velocity is zero, it is at a maximum displacement in the positive and
accelerates in the negative direction. At D it is back to the centre
point and moves at maximum velocity in the negative direction. By
E the velocity has dropped to zero, maximum negative
displacement and a massive acceleration as it changes direction.
This repeats as the pendulum swings through F, G, H and back to I.
Below are the graphs that represent this:
Gradients
s
the
t
gradient of the
displacement
graph gives us
velocity. At C the
gradient is zero
and we can see
that the velocity
is zero.
v
Also since a
t
the gradient of
the velocity graph
gives us
acceleration. At C
the gradient is a
maximum in the
negative direction
and we can see
that the acceleration is a maximum in the negative direction.
Since v
Energy
In all simple harmonic motion systems there is a
conversion between kinetic energy and potential
energy. The total energy of the system remains
constant. (This is only true for isolated systems)
For a simple pendulum there is a transformation
between kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy.
At its lowest point it has minimum gravitational and
maximum kinetic, at its highest point (when
displacement is a maximum) it has no kinetic but a
maximum gravitational. This is shown in the graph.
For a mass on a spring there is a transformation
between kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and the energy stored in the spring
(elastic potential). At the top there is maximum elastic and gravitational but minimum
kinetic. In the middle there is maximum kinetic, minimum elastic but it still has some
gravitational. At its lowest point it has no kinetic, minimum gravitational but maximum
elastic.
SHM Time Periods
Unit 4
Lesson 7
To be able to calculate the time period of a simple pendulum

To be able to calculate the time period of a mass on a spring
To be able to describe the experiment to find g
Learning
Outcomes
The Simple Pendulum

In the diagram we can see that the restoring force of the pendulum is:
F mg sin
When is less than 10 (in radians) sin

F mg
x
l
x
so the equation can become:
l
N. DWYER
Since both F ma and a (2f ) 2 x (for SHM) the equation now becomes:
x
mg m(2f ) 2 x
l
This simplifies to:
g
(2f ) 2
l
Rearranging for f gives us
f
1
2
g
l
And since f
1
T
then:
T 2
l
g
Mass on a Spring
When a spring with spring constant k and length l has a mass m attached to the bottom it
extends by an extension e, this is called the static extension and is the new equilibrium
point. The tension in the spring is balanced by the weight. We can represent this as:
T ke mg
If the mass is pulled down by a displacement x and released it will undergo SHM.
F (k (e x ) mg )
The net upwards force will be:
F ( ke kx mg )
This can be multiplied out to become:
F ( mg kx mg )
Since ke mg this can become:
It simplify to:
F kx
Since both F ma and a ( 2f ) 2 x (for SHM) the
equation now becomes:
kx m( 2f ) 2 x
This simplifies to:
k
(2f ) 2
m
Rearranging for f gives us:
1
k
f
2 m
1
m
And since f
the equation becomes:
T 2
T
k
Finding g
We can find the value of the gravitational field strength, g, on Earth by carrying out the
following experiment.
Set up a simple pendulum of length l and measure the time for one oscillation.
If we measure the time taken for 20 oscillations and divide it by 20 we reduce the
percentage human error of the reading and make our experiment more accurate.
4 2
l
l , by plotting a
If we look at the equation T 2
and rearrange it to become: T 2
g
graph of T2 against l we can find the value of g from the gradient which will be =
Unit 4
4 2
.
g
Resonance and Damping
Free Vibration
Free vibration is where a system is given an initial displacement and then allowed to
vibrate/oscillate freely. The system will oscillate at a set frequency called the natural
frequency, f0. We have seen from the last lesson that the time period for a pendulum only
depends on the length and gravitational field strength whilst the time period of a mass
and spring only depends on the mass and the spring constant. These factors govern the
natural frequency of a system.
Forced Vibration
Forced vibration is where a driving force is continuously applied to make the system
vibrate/oscillate. The thing that provides the driving force will be moving at a certain
frequency. We call this the driving frequency.
Resonance
If I hold one end of a slinky and let the other oscillate
freely we have a free vibration system. If I move my hand
up and down I force the slinky to vibrate. The frequency of
my hand is the driving frequency.
When the driving frequency is lower than the natural
frequency the oscillations have a low amplitude
When the driving frequency is the same as the natural
frequency the amplitude increases massively, maybe even
exponentially.
When the driving frequency is higher than the natural
frequency the amplitude of the oscillations decreases again.
Phase Diference between driver and driven
When the driving force begins to oscillate the driven object the phase difference is 0.
When resonance is achieved the phase difference between them is .
When the driving frequency increases beyond the natural frequency the phase difference
increases to /2.
Damping
Damping forces oppose the motion of the oscillating body, they slow or stop simple
harmonic motion from occurring. Damping forces act in the opposite direction to the
velocity.
Galileo made an important observation while watching lamps swing in Pisa cathedral. He
noticed that the swinging gradually died away but the time taken for each swing stayed
roughly the same. The swing of the lamp was being damped by air resistance.
Light damping slowly reduces the amplitude of the oscillations, but keeps the time period
almost constant.
Heavy damping allows the body to oscillate but brings it quickly to rest.
Critical damping brings the body back to the equilibrium point very quickly with out
oscillation.
Over damping also prevent oscillation but makes the body
take a longer time to reach equilibrium.
Damping and Resonance

Damping reduces the size of the oscillations at
resonance. There is still a maximum amplitude reached
but it is much lower than when the system is undamped.
We say that damping reduces the sharpness of
resonance. This becomes clearer if we look at the graph
on the right.
It shows the amplitude of oscillation against frequency for
different levels of damping.
Gravitational Fields
Unit 4
Lesson 9
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the force of gravity between two masses

To be able to explain what gravitational field strength is
To be able to calculate the gravitational field strength at a distance r
from the centre
N. DWYER
Newtons Law of Gravitation (Gravity)

Gravity is an attractive force that acts between all masses. It is the masses themselves
that cause the force to exist. The force that acts between two masses, m1 and m2, whose
centres are separated by a distance of r is given by:
m1m2
r2
This was tested experimentally in a lab using large lead spheres and was refined to
become:
Gm1m2
r2
G is the Gravitational Constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2

When one of the masses is of planetary size, M, the force between it and a test mass, m,
whose centres are separated by a distance of r is given by:
GMm
F 2
r
The minus sign means that the force is attractive, the force is in the opposite direction to
the distance from the mass (displacement). This will become clearer when we look at the
electric force.
Negative = Attractive
Positive = Repulsive
A gravitational field is the area around a mass where any other mass will experience a
force. We can model a field with
field lines or lines of force.
Radial Fields
The field lines end at the centre of
a mass and tail back to infinity. We
can see that they become more
spread out the further from the
mass we go.
Uniform Fields
The field lines are parallel in a
uniform field. At the surface of the
Earth we can assume the field
lines are parallel, even thou they are not.
Gravitational Field Strength, g

We can think of gravitational field strength as the concentration of the field lines at that
point. We can see from the diagrams above that the field strength is constant in a uniform
field but drops quickly as we move further out in a radial field.
The gravitational field strength at a point is a vector quantity and is defined as:
The force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at that point in the field.
F
g
We can represent this with the equation:
m
If we use our equation for the gravitational force at a distance r and substitute this in for
F we get:
GMm
GM
g 2
g 2
which simplifies to:
r
r m
Gravitational Field Strength is measured in Newtons per kilogram, N kg -1
Unit 4
Lesson 10
Learning
Outcomes
Gravitational Potential
To be able to explain what gravitational potential is and be able to calculate it
To know how gravitational potential is linked to potential energy and be able to
calculate it
To be able to sketch graphs of potential and field strength over
N. DWYER
distance from surface
Gravitational Potential, V
The gravitational potential at a point r from a planet or mass is defined as:
The work done per unit mass against the field to move a point mass from infinity to that
point
GM
r
The value is negative because the potential at infinity is zero and as we move to the mass
we lose potential or energy. Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity.
The gravitational field is attractive so work is done by the field in moving the mass,
meaning energy is given out.
Gravitational Potential is measured in Joules per kilogram, J kg -1
The gravitational potential at a distance r from a mass M is given by:
Gravitational Potential Energy
(Also seen in AS Unit 2)

In Unit 2 we calculated the gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at a
height of h with:
E P mgh
This is only true when the gravitational field strength does not change (or is constant)
such as in a uniform field.
For radial fields the gravitational field strength is given by g
GM
r2
We can use this to help us calculate the gravitational potential energy in a radial field at a
height r.
GM
GM
EP m
E P mgh
EP m 2 r
r
r
(We have dropped the negative sign because energy is a scalar quantity)
If we look at the top equation for gravitational potential we can see that the gravitational
potential energy can be calculated using: E P mV
The work done to move an object from potential V1 to potential V2 is given by:
W m(V2 V1 ) which can be written as W mV
Gravitational Potential Energy is measured in Joules, J
Graphs
Here are the graphs of how gravitational field strength and gravitational potential vary
with distance from the centre of a mass (eg planet). In both cases R is the radius of the
mass (planet).
The gradient of the gravitational potential graph gives us the gravitational field strength
at that point. To find the gradient at a point on a curve we must draw a tangent to the line
then calculate the gradient of the tangent:
y
V
g
gradient
r
x
If we rearrange the equation we can see where we get the top equation for gravitational
potential.
GM
GM
V
g
gr V sub in the equation for g 2 r V 2 r V
r
r
r
GM
V
r
Orbits and Escape Velocity
Unit 4
Lesson 11
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the orbital speed of a satellite if given the height from the
Earth
To be able to calculate the time of orbit of a satellite if given the height from the
Earth
To be able to calculate the escape velocity from a planet
N. DWYER
Orbits

For anything to stay in orbit it requires two things:
*A centripetal force, caused by the gravitational force acting between the object
orbiting and the object being orbited
*To be moving at a high speed
We now know equations for calculating the centripetal force of an object moving in a circle
of radius r AND for calculating the gravitational force between two masses separated by a
distance of r.
Centripetal force at distance r:
F mv
or
or
F mr 2
2
mv
F
r
Gravitational force at distance r:
GMm
r2
These forces are equal to each other, since it is the force of gravity causing the centripetal
force.
From these we can calculate many things about an orbiting object:
The speed needed for a given radius
GM
mv 2 GMm
v 2 GM
GM
v2
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
The time of orbit for a given radius
mr 2
2
GMm
r2
GM
r3
(2f ) 2
GM
r3
GM
r3
4 2 GM
3
T2
r
Energy of Orbit
T2
r3
4 2 r 3
2
GM
4 2 GM
The total energy of a body in orbit is given by the equation:
4 2 r 3
GM
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
ET E K E P
or
1
GMm
1 GMm GMm
1 GMm
1 GM
GMm

mv 2
ET m
ET
ET
2
r
r
2 r
2
r
2 r
r
Geostationary Orbits (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
Geostationary orbiting satellites orbit around the equator from West to East. They stay
above the same point on the equator meaning that the time period is 24 hours or
seconds. They are used for communication satellites such as television or mobile phone
signals.
ET
Escape Velocity
For an object to be thrown from the surface of a planet and escape the gravitational
field (to infinity) the initial kinetic energy it has at the surface must be equal to the
potential energy (work done) to take it from the surface to infinity.
GM
EP m
Potential energy:
Kinetic energy:
R
1
E K mv 2
2
1
GM
1
GM
2GM
mv 2 m
v2
v2
2
R
2
R
R
v
2GM
R
For an object to be escape the Earth..
2(6.67 10 11 )(6.00 10 24 )
v = 11183 m/s
(6.40 10 6 )
This calculation is unrealistic. It assumes that all the kinetic energy must be provided
instantaneously. We have multistage rockets that provide a continuous thrust.
v
Electric Fields
Unit 4
Lesson 12
Learning
Outcomes
2GM
R
To be able to calculate the force of gravity between two charges

To be able to explain what electric field strength is
To be able to calculate the electric field strength at a distance r from
the centre
N. DWYER
Coulombs Law (Electric Force) (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

The electrostatic force acts between all charged particles and can be attractive or
repulsive. It is the charges themselves that cause the force to exist. The force that acts
between two charges, Q1 and Q2, whose centres are separated by a distance of r is given
by:
Like charges
Q1Q2
r2
Opposite charges
Like charges
The proportional constant was found and the equation becomes:

1 Q1Q2
F
4 0 r 2
0 is the Permittivity of Free Space, 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F m-1
When one of the charges is large, Q, the force between it and a test charge, q, whose
centres are separated by a distance of r is given by:
Qq
F
4 0 r 2
If the two charges are positive, (+Q)(+q) = + Qq

repel.
If the two charges are negative, (Q)(q) = + Qq
repel.
If one is negative and one is positive,
means the charges attract.
A positive force means the charges

A positive force means the charges
(Q)(+q) = Qq
A negative force
Electric Fields
An electric field is the area around a charge where any other charge will experience a
force. We can model a field with field lines or lines of force.
Radial Fields
For a positive charge the field lines start at the charge and go out to infinity. For a
negative charge the field
lines end at the centre of
a mass and tail back from
infinity. We can see that
they become more spread
out the further from the
charge we go.
Uniform Fields
The field lines are parallel
in a uniform field. Between two conducting plates the field lines leave the positive plate
and enter the negative plate.
Electric Field Strength, E

We can think of electric field strength as the concentration of the field lines at that point.
We can see from the diagrams above that the field strength is constant in a uniform field
but drops quickly as we move further out in a radial field.
The electric field strength at a point is a vector quantity and is defined as:
The force per unit charge acting on a small charge placed at that point in the field
We can represent this with the equation:
F
q
If we use our equation for the electric force at a distance r and substitute this in for F we
get:
Qq
Q
E
E
which simplifies to:
(RADIAL FIELDS)
2
4 0 r 2
4 0 r q
Electric Field Strength is measured in Newtons per Coulomb, N C -1
Electric Potential
Unit 4
Lesson 13
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain what electric potential is and be able to calculate it

To know what the field strength is like in a uniform field and how it is linked to
electric potential
To be able to sketch graphs of potential and field strength over
N. DWYER
distance from surface
Electric Potential, V
The electric potential at a point r from a point charge is defined as:
The work done per unit charge against the field to move a positive point charge from
infinity to that point
Q
4 0 r
The value will be positive when work is done against the field (when like charges are
repelling).
The value will be negative when work is done by the field (when opposite charges attract).
In both cases the potential at infinity is zero. Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Electric Potential is measured in Joules per Coulomb, J C -1
The electric potential at a distance r from a charge Q is given by: V
Electric Potential Diference
(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2 and AS Unit 1)

Electric potential is the work done per unit charge which can be written like this:
V
W
Q
We came across this equation in the QVIRt lesson of Unit 1. We used it to define the
potential difference as the energy given to each charge. From what we have just defined
we can now update our definition of potential difference. Potential difference is the
difference in electric potential between two points in an electric field.
The work done to move a charge from potential V1 to potential V2 is given by:
W Q (V2 V1 ) which can be written as W QV
Uniform Fields
In a uniform field like that between two conducting plates the field
strength is constant as we have already seen. Now that we
understand electric potential we can use an equation for the field
strength in a uniform field.
V
E
Where V is the potential difference between the plates and d is the separation of
d
the plates.
Electric Field Strength can be measured in Volts per metre, V m-1
Graphs
Here are the graphs of how
electric field strength and
electric potential vary with
distance from the centre of a
charged sphere. In both cases
R is the radius of the sphere.
The gradient of the electric
potential graph gives us the
electric field strength at that
point. To find the gradient at
a point on a curve we must
draw a tangent to the line
then calculate the gradient of
the tangent:
y
V
E
r
x
If we rearrange the equation we can see where we get the top equation for electric
potential.
Q
Q
V
r V
r V
E
Er V sub in the equation for E
2
4 0 r
4 0 r 2
r
Q
V
4 0 r
gradient
Unit 4
Lesson 14
Learning
Outcomes
Fields Comparison
To be able to describe and explain the motion of a charged particle in an electric
field
To be able to state the similarities between gravitational and electric fields
To be able to state the differences between gravitational and electric N. DWYER
fields
Motion in an Electric Field

A charged particle moving through an electric field
will feel a force towards the oppositely charged plate.
We see that the electron moves in a parabola towards
the positive plate and the positron moves towards the
negative plate.
The field strength is constant so the force is the same at all points in the field and is given
by F qE . The direction of the force depends on the charge of the particle entering the
field
Like the projectiles we looked at during AS Unit 2, the vertical velocity is independent from
the horizontal velocity.
The acceleration in the vertical plane will be equal to E and it will freefall like a mass in
a gravitational field.
Comparing Fields
We have seen that the characteristics of gravitational and electric fields have some
similarities and differences.
Force is
between
Constant of
proportionality
Equation for
force
Electric Fields
Masses
Charges
1
4 0
Gm1m2
r2
Newton (N)
Vector
Nature of force
Attractive only
Definition of
field strength
Force per unit mass
Field strength
in radial field
Definition of
potential
Potential
Potential at
infinity
Work done
moving
between points
of different
potential
Gradient of
potential
against
distance graph
1 Q1Q2
4 0 r 2
Newtons (N)
Vector
Like charges repel
Different charges attract
Force per unit charge
GM
r2
Q
4 0 r 2
Newtons per kilogram (N/kg)

Vector
The work done in bringing a unit
mass from infinity to the point in
the field
GM
V
r
Joules per kilogram (J/kg)
Scalar
Newtons per Coulomb (N/C)

Vector
The work done in bringing a unit
charge from infinity to the point in
the field
Q
V
4 0 r
Joules per Coulomb (J/C)
Scalar
W mV
Joules (J)
Scalar
W QV
Field strength
Field strength
Joules (J)
Scalar
Capacitors
Unit 4
Lesson 15
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate capacitance

To be able to explain what happens as a capacitor charges up
To be able to derive the energy stored by a capacitor
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electrical charge and
then release it.
N. DWYER
It is made of two conducting plates separated by an insulator.

The charge that is stored by the capacitor is due to the potential difference across. We can
write this as:
Q V
or
Q = kV
k is a constant specific to the capacitor, this is called the capacitance and is represented
by the symbol C
Q CV
Capacitance is measured in Farads, F

Charge is measured in Coulombs, C
We can rearrange the equation into C = Q / V and from this we can see that capacitance is
a measure of the charge stored per volt of potential difference. 1 Farad means 1 Coulomb
of charge is stored per Volt.
Water Analogy
We can think of the charge stored by a capacitor as the volume of
water in a bucket.
The cross-sectional area of the bucket represents the capacitance
of the capacitor. We can see that the capacitance of capacitor 1 is
higher than the capacitance of capacitor 2.
The height of the water represents the potential difference across
the capacitor. We can see that the potential difference across
capacitor 2 is higher than the p.d. across capacitor 1. The charge
stored by both capacitors is the same.
A capacitor with a lower capacitance can store more charge if the p.d. across it is
increased.
Charging and Discharging

When a capacitor is connected to a battery is sends out electrons to one of the plates, this
becomes negatively charged. The same amount of electrons move from the second plate
and enter the battery, leaving the plate positively charged. The capacitor is now storing a
charge or is charged.
If the charged capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to a lamp it will
give out the stored charge or will discharge. The electrons on the negative plate move
through the circuit and onto the positive plate. The plates now have no charge on them.
The energy stored by the capacitor is transferred to the bulb whilst the electrons move
(whilst a current flows).
Energy Stored by a Capacitor

The top equation shows us that the charge of a capacitor increases with the
potential difference across it. If we plotted p.d. against charge we get a
graph that looks like this
We can derive an equation to find the energy that a capacitor stores by
considering the energy transferred during the shaded section on the lower graph.
In this section the charge changes from q to q+q when an average
p.d. of v is applied across it.
Using E = VQ (see AS Unit 1) the energy stored is E = v q.
The total energy is equal to the total of all the little rectangular
sections and is given by E = QV. This is also equal to the area under
the graph.
We can use the top equation to derive two more equations for the
energy stored by a capacitor:
1
1
1 Q2
E QV
E CV 2
E
2
2
2 C
Unit 4
Lesson 16
Charging and Discharging
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to sketch graphs of charge, p.d. and current over time for a charging
capacitor
To be able to sketch graphs of charge, p.d. and current over time for a
discharging capacitor
To be able to calculate the time constant and state its significance
N. DWYER
In the diagram to the right a capacitor can be charged by

the battery if the switch is moved to position A. It can
then be discharged through a resistor by moving the
switch to position B.
Charging a Capacitor
When the switch is moved to A the battery sends
electrons to the lower plate and takes them from the upper plate. This leaves the lower
plate negatively charged and the upper plate positively charged. An electric field is set up
between the plates.
Current The current is the flow of electrons through the circuit (see Unit 1). There is a large
current initially as electrons move to the lower plate. As time passes and more electrons
are on the plate it becomes more difficult to add more due to the electrostatic repulsion of
similar charges. When no more electrons move in the circuit the current drops to zero.
Charge The charge stored by the capacitor increases with every electron the moves to the
negative plate. The amount of charge increases quickly at the beginning because a large
current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the charge increases also drops.
A maximum charge is reached.
P.D. Since potential difference is proportional to charge, as charge builds up so does p.d. The
maximum value of p.d. is reached as is equal to the terminal p.d. of the battery.
Discharging a Capacitor
When the switch in moved to B the electrons on the negative plate repel each other and
move back into the circuit. Eventually both plates lose their charge and the electric field
between them disappears.
Current There is initially a large current as the electrons leave the negative plate. As the
number of electrons on the negative plate falls so does the size of the repulsive
electrostatic force, this makes the current fall at a slower rate. When no more electrons
move in the circuit the current drops to zero.
Charge The charge that was stored on the plates now falls with every electron that leaves the
negative plate. The charge falls quickly initially and then slows, eventually reaching zero
when all the charge has left the plates.
P.D. As the charge falls to zero so does the potential difference across the capacitor.
Time Constant,
The time it takes for the capacitor to discharge depends on the time constant.
The time constant is the time it takes for the charge or p.d. of a capacitor to fall to 37% of
the initial value. OR
The time constant is the time it takes for the charge or p.d. of a capacitor to fall by 63%
of the initial value.
It is given by the equation:
RC
If the capacitor has a larger capacitance it means it can hold more charge, this means it
will take longer to discharge. If the resistor has a larger resistance it means it is harder to
move the electrons around the circuit, this also means it will take longer to discharge.
Exponential Decay
Unit 4
Lesson 17
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the charge of a discharging capacitor after a time, t

To be able to calculate the potential difference across a discharging capacitor
after a time, t
To be able to calculate the current through a discharging capacitor
N. DWYER
after a time, t
Finding from Graphs

The time constant of a discharging capacitor can be found from a graph of either charge,
current or potential difference against time. After one time constant the value will have
dropped to 0.37 of the initial value.
In this case the time constant is 4 seconds.
Quantitative Treatment
We could use the graph above to find the charge on the capacitor after a time, t. We could
also use it to find the time it takes for the charge to fall to a value of Q.
This requires the graph to be drawn very accurately and values need to be taken from it
very carefully.
Instead of doing this we can use the following equation to calculate the charge, Q after a
time, t.
Q Q0 e t / RC
t is the time that has elapsed since discharge began
Q is the remaining charge
Q0 is the initial (or starting) charge
RC is the time constant, also equal to the resistance multiplied by the capacitance.
When the time elapsed is equal to the time constant the charge should have fallen to
37% of the initial value.
Q Q0 e t / RC Q Q0 e RC / RC
Q Q0 e 1 (but e-1 = 0.37)
Q Q0 0.37
When the time elapsed is equal to twice the time constant the charge should have fallen
to 37% of 37% of the initial value.
Q Q0 e t / RC Q Q0 e 2 RC / RC
Q Q0 e 2 (but e-2 = 0.37 x 0.37) Q Q0 0.14
Similar equations can be established for the current flowing through and the potential
difference across the capacitor after time, t:
Q Q0 e t / RC
I I 0 e t / RC
V V0 e t / RC
Rearranging
The equations above can be rearranged to make t the subject. We will use the equation for
charge:
Q
Q
Q
e t / RC ln
t
RC t
Q Q0 e t / RC
ln
RC
Q0
Q0
Q0
Q
RC t
ln
Q0
They can also be rearranged to make RC (time constant) the subject:
Q Q0 e
Unit 4
Lesson 18
Learning
Outcomes
t / RC
Q
e t / RC
Q0
Q
ln
Q0
t
RC
RC t
Q0
ln
Force on a Current Carrying

Wire
To be able to explain why a wire with a current flowing through it will experience
a force
To be able to calculate the size of the force on the wire
To be able to state the direction of the force on the wire
N. DWYER
We will be looking at the force a current carrying wire experiences when it is in a magnetic
field.
Before we look into the size and direction of the force we need to establish some basics.
Conventional Current
We know that the current flowing in a circuit is due to the negative electrons flowing from
the negative terminal of a battery to the positive terminal.
Negative to Positive is the flow of electrons
Before the discovery of the electron scientist thought that the current flowed from the
positive terminal to the negative one. By the time the electron was discovered many laws
had been established to explain the world around them using current as flowing from
positive to negative.
Positive to Negative is the Conventional Current
Magnetic Field Lines
We are familiar with the shape of a magnetic field around a bar magnet. Magnetic field
lines leave the North Pole of the magnet and enter the South Pole. The poles of a magnet
are stronger than the side because there are more field lines in the same area of space.
Magnetic field lines go from North to South
A 3D Problem
We will be looking at movement, fields and currents in 3D but our page is only 2D. To
solve this problem we will use the following notation: A dot means coming out of the page
and a cross means going into the page. Imagine an arrow fired from a bow, pointy end
means its coming towards you, cross means its moving away.
out of the page,
into the page
Current Carrying Wires
When a current flows through a straight piece of wire it creates a circular
magnetic field. The Right Hand Grip Rule shows us the direction of the
magnetic field. If we use our right hand and do a thumbs up the thumb is the
direction of the conventional current and the fingers point the direction of the
field lines.
Right hand thumbs up
Force on a Current Carrying Wire

When a wire is placed between a North and
South Pole (in a magnetic field), nothing
happens.
When a (conventional) current flows through
the wire it experiences a force due to the
magnetic fields of the magnet and the wire. If
we look at the diagram we can see that the magnetic field lines above are more compact
than below. This forces the wire downwards.
Flemings Left Hand Rule

This rule links the directions of the force, magnetic field and conventional
current which are all at right angles to each other. Your first finger points
from North to South, your middle finger points from positive to negative and
your thumb points in the direction of the force.
Size of the Force

The size of the force on a wire of length l, carrying a current I placed in a magnetic field of
F BIl
magnetic flux density B is given by the equation:
Here the wire is at 90 to the magnetic field lines.
When the wire is at an angle of with the magnetic field the force is given by:
F BIl sin
F
If we rearrange the equation to B we see that 1 Tesla is the magnetic flux density
Il
(field strength) that causes a 1 Newton force to act on 1 metre of wire carrying 1 Amp of
current.
Magnetic Flux Density is measured in Tesla, T
This equation looks very familiar if we compare it to the force in a gravitational and
electric field.
F m.g
F q.E
F Il.B
Unit 4
Lesson 19
Learning
Outcomes
Force on a Charged Particle

To be able to calculate the size and direction of the force on a charged particle in
a magnetic field
To be able to describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field
To be able to describe the main features of a cyclotron and explain
N. DWYER
how it works
Force on Charged Particle

From our equation for the force a magnetic field will exert on a wire we can derive a
equation for the force it will exert on a single charged particle.
Q
Start with F BIl . In Unit 1 we defined the current as I
so we can sub this in to
t
Q
FB l
become
t
l
l
We can rewrite this equation F BQ and use v from Unit 2 to arrive at the equation:
t
t
F BQv
Moving in a Circle
If a charged particle enters a magnetic field it will feel a
force. We now know the size of the force (given by equation
above) and direction of the force (given by Flemings Left
Hand Rule).
If we use the left hand rule in the diagram to the right we
can see that the force is always at right angles to the velocity. First finger
points into the page, middle finger points along the line and our thumb
points upwards.
While the particle is in the magnetic field it will move in a circle.
Radius of the circle
We can calculate the radius a charged particle will move in by using our equation for the
force on a charged particle in a magnetic field and a centripetal force equation.
F BQv and F
mv 2
mv 2
are equal to each other so we can write BQv
r
r
mv 2
BQv
mv
BQ
Time for a complete circle

We can also calculate the time it takes for the charged particle to move in one complete
circle.
Starting at F mv we can use 2f to make the equation become F mv 2f and
mv 2
then F
T
The centripetal force is due to the magnetic force on the charged particle so we can put
mv 2
m 2
these equal to each other. BQv
cancel the v to become BQ
which
T
T
m 2
T
rearranges to:
BQ
So the time it takes to complete a full circle does not depend on the velocity.
The Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a particle accelerator. It consists of two hollow Dshaped electrodes (called dees) that are attached to an
alternating p.d. supply. The dees are placed in vacuum chamber
and a magnetic field which acts at right angles to them.
A particle will move in a circle because of the magnetic field.
When it reaches the gap between the dees the alternating supply
has made the other dee have the opposite charge to the particle.
This causes the particle to accelerate across the gap and enter the
second dee. This continues to happen until the particle is moving at
the required speed. At this point it leaves the cyclotron.
The Mass Spectrometer

A mass spectrometer is used to analyse the types of atom that are in a sample. The atoms
are given a charge, accelerated and sent into a magnetic field. If we look at the radius
equation above we can see that atoms travelling at the same speed in the same magnetic
field given the same charge will be deflected based on their mass. Heavy
atoms will move in bigger circles than lighter ones.
Pair Production
If we think back to Unit 1 we saw this phenomenon in action. Pair production is
when a photon of energy is converted into a particle and an antiparticle, such
as an electron and a positron. If this happens in a magnetic field the electron
will move in a circle in one direction and the positron will move in a circle in
the other direction.
Magnetic Flux and Flux

Linkage
Unit 4
Lesson 20
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate and explain the magnetic flux through a coil of wire
To be able to calculate the magnetic flux linkage of a coil of wire
To be able to calculate the magnetic flux linkage of a rotating coil
N. DWYER
Magnetic Flux,
Magnetic flux is a measure of how many magnetic field lines are passing through an area
of A m2.
The magnetic flux through an area A in a magnetic field of flux density B is given by:
BA
This is when B is perpendicular to A, so the normal to the area is in the same direction as
the field lines.
Magnetic Flux is measured in Webers, Wb
The more field pass through area A, the greater the concentration and the stronger
magnetic field.
This is why a magnet is strongest at its poles; there is a high concentration of field lines.
We can see that the amount of flux flowing
through a loop of wire depends on the
angle it makes with the field lines. The
amount of flux passing through the loop is
given by:
BA cos
is the angle that the normal to the loop
makes with the field lines.
Magnetic Flux Density
We can now see why B is called the magnetic flux density. If we rearrange the top
equation for B we get:
B
So B is a measure of how many flux lines (field lines) passes through each unit area
A
(per m2).
A flux density of 1 Tesla is when an area of 1 metre squared has a flux of 1 Weber.
Flux Linkage
BA
We now know that the amount of flux through one loop of wire is:
If we have a coil of wire made up of N loops of wire the total flux is given by:
N BAN
The total amount of flux, N , is called the Magnetic Flux Linkage; this is because we
consider each loop of wire to be linked with a certain amount of magnetic flux.
Sometimes flux linkage is represented by , so N which makes our equation for
flux linkage BAN
Flux Linkage is measured in Webers, Wb
Rotating Coil in a Magnetic Field

If we have a rectangle of wire that has an area of A and we place it in a magnetic field of
flux density B, we have seen that the amount of flux flowing through the wire depends on
the angle between it and the flux lines.
The flux linkage at an angle from the perpendicular to the magnetic field is given by:
N BAN cos
From our lessons on circular motion we established that the angular speed is given by
which can be rearranged to t and substituted into the equation above to

t
N BAN cos t
transform it into:
When t = 0 the wire is perpendicular to the field so there is a maximum amount of flux.
At 1 the flux linkage is a maximum in one direction. There is the lowest rate of change at
this point.
At 2 the flux linkage is zero. There is the biggest rate of change at this point
At 3 the flux linkage is maximum but in the opposite direction. The lowest rate of change
occurs here too.
At 4 the flux linkage is zero. There is the biggest rate of change at the point too but in the
opposite direction.
Next lesson we will be looking at inducing an e.m.f. using a wire and a magnetic field. The
size of the e.m.f. depends on the rate of change of flux linkage.
Unit 4
Lesson 21
Electromagnetic Induction
To know how emf and current are induced
To know Faradays Law and be able to use it to describe the induced emf
Learning
To know Lenzs Law and be able to use it to describe the induced

emf
Making Electricity
N. DWYER
(Also seen at GCSE Physics 3)

An e.m.f. can be induced across the ends of a conducting wire in two ways:
1) Move the wire through a magnetic field
or
2) Move a magnet through a coil
of the wire
In both cases magnetic field lines and wires are cutting through each other. We say that
the wire is cutting through the magnetic field lines (although it is fair to say that the field
lines are cutting through the wire).
If the conductor is part of a complete circuit a current will be induced through it as well as
an e.m.f. across it.
There are two laws that describe the induced e.m.f...
Faradays Law Size of induced e.m.f.
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor equals the rate of change of flux
linkages or the rate at which the conductor cuts a magnetic flux.
Straight Wire
Imagine a straight piece of wire of length l is moved through
a magnetic field at a velocity v. If the wire is moving at right
angles to the field lines an e.m.f. is induced (because field
lines are being cut).
The size of the e.m.f. is given by the equation:
N
For one loop of wire

and the flux is given by BA which are combine to become
t
BA

t
BA
B is constant so
. A is the area the wire cuts through in a time t and is given by
t
Bl.vt
A l.vt so we get:
The length of the wire and velocity are constant so it
t
Blvt
becomes
which cancels to: Blv
t
Rotating Coil of Wire
If we have a coil of wire with N turns, each of which has an area of A and placed it a
magnetic field of flux density B nothing would happen. If it was rotated with an angular
speed of it would cut through the magnetic field lines and an e.m.f. would be induced.
The size of the e.m.f. is given by:
( BA cos t )
Since N
and BA cos t we get N
and if we differentiate it:
t
t
BAN sin t
This is why the Mains supply is alternating; the rotating coil cuts the field lines in one
direction on the way up and the other direction on the way down.
Lenzs Law Direction of induced e.m.f.
The direction of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor is such that it opposes the change
producing it.
Solenoid (Right Hand Grip Rule)
A solenoid with a current flowing through it produces a
magnetic field like that of a bar magnet. We can work
out which end is the North Pole and which is the South
by using the Right Hand Grip Rule from our force on a
wire lesson. If our fingers follow the direction of the
current through the coils our thumb points out of the North Pole.
*When we push the North Pole of a magnet the induced current in
the solenoid flows to make a North Pole to repel the magnet.
*When we pull the North Pole out of the solenoid the induced
current flows to make a South Pole to attract the magnet.
Flemings Right Hand Rule
If we are just moving a straight wire through a uniform magnetic field the direction of the
induced current can be worked out using Flemings Right Hand Rule.
Your first finger points in the direction of the field from North to South, your thumb points
in the direction the wire is moved and your middle finger points in the direction of the
conventional current.
Transformers
Unit 4
Lesson 22
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to describe a transformer and calculate the voltage and current in the
secondary coil
To be able to calculate the efficiency of a transformer and explain why they are
used
To be able to state the causes of inefficiency in transformers
N. DWYER
Transformers

A transformer is a device used to change the voltage/current
of a circuit using electromagnetic induction. It consists of a
soft iron core wrapped on both side with wire. The first coil of
wire is called the primary coil and the other coil of wire is
called the secondary coil.
A current doesnt flow from one coil of wire to the other.
How They Work
A current flows through the primary coil which creates a
magnetic field.
As this field is established the field lines cut through the turns of wire on the secondary
coil. This induces an e.m.f. (voltage) and a current in the second coil.
Since the supply to the primary coil is constantly changing direction the magnetic field is
constantly changing direction. This means the secondary coil also has an alternating
e.m.f. and current.
An iron core is used because it is easily magnetised and demagnetised and conducts the
magnetic field.
Transforming Voltage and Current

There are two types of transformers:
Step Up
The voltage in the secondary coil is larger than the voltage in the primary coil.
The current in the secondary coil is smaller than the current in the primary coil.
There will be more turns of wire on the secondary coil meaning more flux linkage
Step Down
The voltage in the secondary coil is smaller than the voltage in the primary coil.
The current in the secondary coil is larger that the current in the primary coil.
There will be fewer turns of wire on the secondary coil meaning less flux linkage
In both cases the voltage and current (VP and IP) in the primary coil of NP turns is linked to
the voltage and current (VS and IS) in the secondary coil of NS turns by the following
equation:
N S VS I P
N P VP I S
The National Grid

The National Grid is a system of transformers that increases the voltage (reducing the
current) of an alternating electrical supply as it leaves the power station. Thick cables held
above the ground by pylons carry the supply to our neighbourhood. A second series of
transformers lowers the voltage to a safe level and increases the current to be used in our
homes.
Why Bother?
Energy is lost in the transmission of electricity. The electrons flowing in the wire are
constantly colliding with the positive ions of the metal that the wire is made from. If we
increase the voltage of a supply this lowers the current. Lowering the current reduces the
number of collisions happening per second hence reducing the amount of energy lost in
reaching our homes.
The cables that carry the current have a larger cross sectional area, this lowers the
resistance and energy lost.
Efficiency of a Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the following equation:
I S VS
Efficiency
I PV P
The efficiency of a transformer can be increased by:
*Using low resistance windings to reduce the power wasted due to the heating effect of
the current.
*Use a laminated core which consists of layers of iron separated by layers of insulation.
This reduces heating in the iron core and currents being induced in the core itself
(referred to as eddy currents).
Unit 5
Lesson 1
Learning
Outcomes
Rutherford Scattering
To know the set up of Rutherfords experiment and the results he found
To be able to explain how the results are evidence for the nucleus
To know the factors we must consider when choosing the particle we N. DWYER
will scatter
Rutherfords Scattering Experiment
(Also seen in GCSE
Physics 2)
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
worked with Ernest Rutherford in
his Manchester laboratories in
1909. They fired alpha particles
(which they knew to have a
positive charge) of a few MeV into
a thin piece of gold foil. This was
done in an evacuated chamber
connected to a vacuum pump.
When the alpha particles passed
through the gold foil they hit a zinc sulphide screen which emits
light whenever an alpha particle strikes it. This screen was
observed using a moving microscope in a dark room.
At the time the accepted structure of the atom was like a plum
pudding: positive dough spread evenly with negative electrons
scattered through out it like plums in a pudding.
Results

Geiger and Marsden found that almost all of the alpha particles
passed through with little or no deflection. Rutherford suggested
moving the microscope in front of the foil, when they did they
found that about 1 in every 8000 was reflected back or scattered
through an angle of more that 90.
If the plum pudding model was the structure of the atom this would
be like firing a bullet at a piece of toilet paper and it bouncing back
mental!
The Nuclear Model

Rutherford used these results to make the following conclusions:
Most of the mass must be gathered in one small volume the
nucleus.
They can repel a fast moving alpha particle
The nucleus must be positively charged.
They repel positive alpha particles
Most of the atom is empty space.
Only 1 in 8000 alpha particles are deflected

Negative electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance from it.
Negative charges are needed to keep the atom neutral
Which Particle to Use?

There are two things to consider when using scattering to find the structure of things: the
particle and the energy
Alpha Scattering: Rutherford used alpha particles with energies around 4MeV, any
higher and it would be close enough to the nucleus to experience the strong nuclear force.
Electron Scattering: Electrons are accelerated to high energies of around 6GeV. They
have enough energy to be scattered within protons and neutrons; discovering quarks.
Electrons travelling at this speed have a de Broglie wavelength 1000 times smaller than
visible light meaning we can see more detail.
X-ray Scattering: X-ray photons have short wavelengths and can be scattered or
completely absorbed by atomic electrons. If the electron is tightly bound or the photon
has very little energy the electron remains in the atom and the photon loses no energy.
This is known as elastic or coherent scattering. If the photon has enough energy it knocks
the electron out of orbit (ionisation) and does lose energy.
Neutron Scattering: Very useful because they are not charged but this limits the
energies they can be accelerated to. Neutrons interact weakly with other nuclei and do
not interact with electrons at all, because of this they can penetrate further. Their
wavelengths are similar to that of atomic spacing, meaning that diffraction will occur.
Unit 5
Lesson 2
Learning
Outcomes
Ionising Radiation
To know what alpha, beta and gamma are and be able to list their uses and
dangers
To know the inverse-square law of radiation and be able to calculate intensity at
given distances
To know what background radiation is and what contributes to it
N. DWYER
Ionisation

The process of ionisation involves the removal of one or more electron from an atom.
When radiation enters a GM tube it may ionise the atoms inside, the electrons are
attracted to a positive wire and a small current flows. There are three types of radiation,
each with its own properties, uses and dangers.
Alpha:
A Helium nucleus two protons and two neutrons

Relative mass: 4
Relative charge: +2 Deflection by E/M field: Yes
Ionising power: High Penetrating power: Low
Range in air: 5cm
Stopped by: Skin, paper
Uses: Smoke detectors, radiotherapy to treat cancer
Danger out of body: Low
Danger in body: Cell
death, mutation and cancer
Beta: A fast moving electron
Relative mass: 1/2000
Relative charge: -1
Deflection by
E/M field: Yes
Ionising power: Medium
Penetrating power: Medium
Range in
air: 2-3m
Stopped by: Aluminium
Uses: Thickness control in paper production
Danger out of body: Damage to skin
Danger in body: Similar to alpha but less
damage
Gamma: A high frequency electromagnetic wave
Relative mass: 0
Relative charge: 0
Deflection by E/M field: No
Ionising power: Low Penetrating power: High
Range in air: 15m
Slowed by: Lead, concrete
Uses: Tracers: medical and industrial, sterilising surgical equipment
Danger out of body: Cell death, mutation and cancer
Danger in body: Low
The Inverse-Square Law

Gamma radiation from a source will spread out. The radiation from a small source can be
considered the same in all directions (isotropic), imagine a sphere around the source. As
we move further away from the source the bigger the sphere gets. The same amount of
energy is shared over a greater surface area. The further we move from the source the
less intensity of the gamma radiation.
Intensity is measured in Watts, W
The intensity, I, of the radiation at a distance x from the
source is given as
Where I0 is the intensity at the source and k is a constant.
kI 0
x2
We do not always need to know the intensity at the source to find it at a given distance.
Consider two points, A and B, a certain distance away from a gamma source.
IA
kI 0
I A ( x A ) 2 kI 0
(xA )2
and
IB
kI 0
I B ( x B ) 2 kI 0
( xB ) 2
We can combine these to give I A ( x A ) 2 kI 0 I B ( x B ) 2
I A ( x A ) 2 I B ( xB ) 2
Background Radiation

We are continuously exposed to a certain level of background radiation. In the lessons to
come you must remember to subtract the background radiation from the
recorded radiation level to get the true (or corrected) reading.
The main contributors to background radiation are:
Radon and Thoron gas:
51%
Ground, rocks and
buildings: 14%
Food and drink: 12%
Medical: 12%
Cosmic rays: 10%
Air travel: 0.4%
Nuclear weapons
testing: 0.3%
Occupational: 0.2%
Nuclear power: 0.1%
Radioactive Decay
Unit 5
Lesson 3
Learning
Outcomes
To know what activity is and how to calculate it

To know what the decay constant is and how to calculate it
To know what half life is and be able to find it by calculation or
graphical methods
N. DWYER
Decay

Something that is radioactive will decay into something that is stable. Radioactive decay
happens randomly and spontaneously: there is no way of predicting when a radioactive
nucleus will decay and external factors do not influence it at all (e.g. pressure and
temperature).
What we can do is give a probability that a nucleus will decay in a given time.
Decay Constant,
Every radioactive isotope has its own probability that a nucleus will decay, called the
decay constant.
Activity, A
The activity of a radioactive source is the number of decays that happen every second.
1 becquerel is equal to one decay per second, 50 becquerels is equal to 50 decay per
second,
Activity is measured in becquerels, Bq (decays per second, s -1)
During a certain amount of time, t, some radioactive atoms (N) decay from a sample of
N atoms.
N
N this can be written as
t
A N
The minus sign is there because we are losing nuclei, the number we have left is getting
smaller.
The change in the number of nuclei in a certain time is
Exponential Decay
As time passes the number of nuclei that decay every second will
N N 0 e t
decrease.
To calculate the number of nuclei that we have left after a time, t, is given by:
Where N0 is the number of nuclei at the start and N is the current number of nuclei. This is
similar to the exponential decay equation of a discharging capacitor.
A A0 e t
The equation for calculating the activity looks similar:
Half-Life

Each radioactive isotopes has its own half-life. We already know that it is:
The time it takes for the number of atoms in a sample to drop to half of its original sample
or
The time it takes for the activity of a substance to drop to half of its original activity
Half-Life is measured in seconds, s
The half life of a substance is linked to the decay constant.
If there is a high probability that a nucleus will decay ( = BIG) then it will not take long
before half the sample has decayed to stability (half-life = short).
If there is a low probability that a nucleus will decay ( = small) then it will take a long
time for half of the sample to have decayed (half-life = LONG).
T1
2
ln 2
where
T 1 is the half life

2
Graphs

We can calculate
the half-life from
activity and
number of nuclei
graphs. Choose a
starting value and
then find how long
it takes to fall to
half this value. In
the graphs we can
see that both fall
from 50 to 25 and
take 5 hours to do
this. Therefore the half-life is 5 hours. Knowing this we
can then calculate the decay constant.
Modes of Decay
Unit 5
Lesson 4
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to sketch and label a graph of N against Z for stable and unstable
nuclei
To be able to state the changes to the parent nuclei when it undergoes: decay,
- decay, + decay,
nucleon emission, electron capture and gamma ray emission
N. DWYER
N Against Z Graph
Here is a graph of the number of neutrons against the
number of protons in a nucleus. It shows stable and
unstable nuclei.
Stable nuclei/isotopes are found on the black line/dots.
The shaded areas above and below the line of stability
represent radioactive isotopes.
Why doesnt it follow N=Z?

Protons repel each other with the electromagnetic force but the strong nuclear force is
stronger at small distances and keeps them together in the nucleus. We can see the line
of stability follows N=Z at low values.
As the nucleus gets bigger there are more protons, when they become a certain distance
apart they no longer experience the strong nuclear force that keeps them together, only
the electromagnetic which pushes them apart. To keep the nucleus together we need
more neutrons which feel no electromagnetic repulsion only the attraction of the strong
nuclear force.
Points to remember
Follows N=Z around Z=20, then curves to go through Z=80 N=120
- emitters above the line, + emitters below the line and at the top
Alpha Decay

An alpha particle (a Helium nucleus) is ejected from the parent nucleus.
A
A4
4
Loss: 2 protons, 2 neutrons
Z X Z 2Y 2
Beta Minus Decay

A neutron is transformed into a proton (that stays in the nucleus) and an electron (which
is emitted).
A
A
0
Loss: 1 neutron
Gain: 1 proton
Z X Z 1Y 1 e e
Beta Plus Decay

A proton is transformed into a neutron and a positron.
A
A
0
Loss: 1 proton
Z X Z 1Y 1 e e
Gain: 1 neutron
Electron Capture
A nucleus can capture one of the orbiting electrons. A proton changes into a neutron.
A
0
A
Loss: 1 proton
Gain: 1 neutron
Z X 1 e Z 1Y e
Nucleon Emission Decay

It is possible for an unstable isotope to emit a nucleon
from the nucleus.
In proton-rich or proton-heavy nuclei it is possible (though
rare) for a proton to be emitted.
A
A1
1
Loss: 1 proton
Z X Z 1Y 1 p
In neutron-rich or neutron-heavy nuclei it is possible
(though rare) for a neutron to be emitted.
A
A 1
1
Loss: 1 neutron
Z X Z X 0 n
Gamma Ray Emission

Alpha emission is often followed by gamma ray emission.
The daughter nuclei are left in an excited state
(remember energy levels from Unit 1) which they will at
some point fall from to the ground state, emitting a
gamma photon. There is no nuclear structure change,
just a change of energy.
A
A
Loss: Energy
Z X Z X
Unit 5
Lesson 5
Learning
Outcomes
Nuclear Radius
To be able to calculate the radius of a nucleus by the closest approach of alpha
particles
To be able to calculate the radius of a nucleus by the diffraction angle of
electrons
To be able to calculate the nuclear radius and nuclear density
N. DWYER
Rutherford gave us an idea of the size of the nucleus compared to the atom but more
experimental work has been done to find a more accurate measurement.
Closest Approach of Alpha

Particles
Rutherford fired alpha particles at gold atoms
in a piece of foil. They approach the nucleus
but slow down as the electromagnetic
repulsive force become stronger. Eventually
they stop moving, all the kinetic energy has been converted into potential energy as the
particles come to rest at a distance r from the centre of the nucleus.
EK EP
E P qV where V is the electric potential at a distance of r from the centre
Q
Q
Q
EP q
EK q
rq
4 0 E K
4 0 r
4 0 r
This gives us the upper limit of the radius of a nucleus.
Calculating the nuclear radius this way gives us a value of r = 4.55 x 10-14 m or 45.5 fm
(where 1 fm = 1 x 10-15 m)
Modern measurements give us values of approximately r = 6.5 fm
(Remember that 1 eV of energy is equal to 1.6 x 10 -19 J)
Electron Difraction
A beam of electrons were fired at a thin sample of
atoms and the diffraction pattern was detected and
then examined.
The graph shows a
minimum at a value of
min. We can use this to
find a value of the
nuclear radius.
0.61
sin min
D
Where D is the nuclear radius and is the de Broglie
wavelength of the beam of electrons. We can calculate
this as follows:
The kinetic energy gained by the electrons is E K eV where e is the charge on the
electron and V is the potential difference used to accelerate it. So we now have:
2
1
mv 2 2eV m 2 v 2 2meV
m 2 v 2 2meV mv 2meV
2 mv eV
h
We can now substitute this into the equation for de Broglie wavelength:
mv
h
2meV
Nuclear Radius
From the experimental results a graph was plotted of R against A. A
graph like the one to the right was obtained. They saw that R
depends not on A, but on A.
When they plotted the graph of R against A they found a straight
line that cut the origin and had a gradient of r0. (r0 is a constant
representing the radius of a single nucleon and has a value of
between 1.2 and 1.5 fm)
The radius of a nucleus has been found to be:
R r0 A
Nuclear Density
Now that we have an equation for the nuclear radius we can calculate the density of a
nucleus.
If we have a nucleus of A nucleons, we can assume the mass is Au and the volume is the
volume of a sphere:
m
V
u
3
4
3 r0
Au
3
4
3 R
Au
1
4
3 3
3 ( r0 A )
Au
3
4
3 r0 A
We can see that the density is independent of the nucleon number and gives a value of:
3.4 x 1017 kg m-3.
Mass and Energy
Unit 5
Lesson 6
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain what mass defect is and be able to calculate

To be able to explain what binding energy is and be able to calculate
To be able to sketch the graph of B.E. per nucleon against nucleon
number
N. DWYER
Disappearing Mass
The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of the protons and neutrons that it is made of.
(mass of protons + mass of neutrons) mass of nucleus = m
m is the difference in the masses and is called the mass defect.
Let us look at the nucleus of a Helium atom to see this in action. It is made up of 2 protons
and 2 neutrons:
Mass of nucleons = 2 x (mass of proton) + 2 x (mass of neutron)
Mass of nucleons = 2 x (1.673 x 10-27) + 2 x (1.675 x 10-27)
Mass of nucleons = 6.696 x 10-27 kg
Mass of nucleus = 6.648 x 10-27 kg
Mass defect = mass of nucleons mass of nucleus
Mass defect = 6.696 x 10-27 6.648 x 10-27 = 0.048 x 10-27 kg
As we can see, we are dealing with tiny
masses. For this reason we will use the
atomic mass unit, u
1u = 1.661 x 10-27 kg
The mass defect now becomes = 0.029 u
Einstein to the Rescue
Particle
Proton
Mass (kg)
1.673 x 10-
Mass (u)
1.00728
Neutron
1.675 x 10-
1.00867
Electron
9.11 x 10-31
0.00055
27
27
In 1905, Einstein published his theory of special relativity. In this it is stated that:
Energy is equal to the mass multiplied by the speed of light
E mc 2
squared.
This means gaining energy means a gain in mass, losing energy means losing mass. The
reverse must be true.
Gaining mass means a gain in energy, losing mass means a loss in energy.
The energy we are losing is the binding energy.
where m is the mass defect and E is binding energy
E mc 2
Binding Energy
As the protons and neutrons come together the strong nuclear force pulls them closer and
they lose potential energy. (Like how an object loses its gravitational potential energy as it
falls to the Earth.)
Energy must be done against the s.n.f. to separate the nucleus into the nucleons it is
made of. This is called the binding energy (although unbinding energy would be a better
way to think of it).
The binding energy of the Helium nucleus from above would be: E = m c2
E=
-27
8 2
(0.048 x 10 ) x (3.0 x 10 )
E = 4.32 x 10-12 J
The Joule is too big a unit to use at the atomic scale. We will use the electron Volt (see AS
Unit 1)
1u = 1.5 x 10-10 J
and
1eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J
1u = 931.3 MeV
We can now calculate the binding energy of the Helium nucleus to be:
(27 million eV)
E = 27 MeV
Binding Energy Graph

The binding energy is the energy required
to separate a nucleus into its constituent
nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon
gives us the energy required to remove one
proton or neutron from the nucleus.
The graph of binding energy per nucleon
against nucleon number looks like this.
There is an increase in the energy required
to remove one nucleon up until the peak of
8.8 MeV at Iron 56. The line then gently
decreases. This means Iron is the most
stable nucleus because it requires the
largest amount of energy to remove one
nucleon. This will also mean that there is
the greatest mass defect.
Fission and Fusion
Unit 5
Lesson 7
Learning
Outcomes
To know what occurs in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion processes

To know what a chain reaction is, how it occurs and what critical mass is
To be able to state and explain whether fission or fusion will occur
N. DWYER
Nuclear Fission
(Also see GCSE Physics 2)

Fission occurs when a nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei
We make fission happen by firing slow moving neutrons at Uranium 235, Plutonium 239 or
Thorium 232 nuclei. We call this induced fission. In this processes the nucleus absorbs a
neutron then splits to form two lighter nuclei, releases energy and any neutrons left over,
usually 2 or 3.
Here is a possible equation for the fission of Uranium 235:
235
1
144
90
1
92 U 0 n 56 Ba 36 Kr 2 0 n energyrele ased , E
Chain Reaction
In the above reaction two free neutrons were
released, these can also be absorbed by two
heavy nuclei and cause a fission process.
These nuclei would release more neutrons
which could cause further fissions and so on.
Critical Mass
For a chain reaction to happen the mass of the
fissionable material must be greater than a
certain minimum value. This minimum value is
known as the critical mass and is when the
surface area to mass ratio is too small.
If mass < critical mass: more neutrons are escaping than are produced.
Stops
If mass = critical mass: number of neutrons escaping = number of neutrons produced.
Steady
If mass > critical mass: more neutrons are produced than are escaping.
Meltdown
Nuclear Fusion
(Also see GCSE Physics 2)

Fusion occurs when two nuclei join to form a bigger nucleus
The two nuclei must have very high energies to be moving fast enough to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion of the protons then, when close enough, the strong nuclear force
will pull the two nuclei together.
Here is an example of the fusing of two hydrogen isotopes:
2
3
4
1
1 H 1 H 2 He 0 n energyrele ased , E
Which Will Happen?

Looking at the graph we can see the Iron 56 has
the highest binding energy per nucleon, the
most energy required to remove one proton or
neutron from the nucleus. This makes it the most
stable.
Nuclei lighter than Iron will undergo fusion.
Protons and neutrons feel the attraction of the
strong nuclear force but only protons feel the
repulsion of the electrostatic force. For light
nuclei, adding an extra proton increases the
strong nuclear force to pull the nucleon together.
This is because at this range the s.n.f. force is
stronger than the other three fundamental forces.
The nucleons move closer together potential energy is lost energy is given out
Nuclei heavier than Iron will undergo fission.
Beyond Iron, each proton that is added to the nuclei adds to the electrostatic repulsion.
The bigger the nucleus become the less the outer protons feel the strong nuclear force
from the other side. We can see the binding energy per nucleon decrease for heavier
nuclei.
A big nucleus will break into two smaller nuclei, each being stronger bonded together due
to the smaller size.
The nucleons move closer together potential energy is lost energy is given out.
Nuclear Reactors
Unit 5
Lesson 8
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain how a nuclear reactor produces electricity

To be able to explain the roles of the fuel rods, moderator, coolant and control
rods
To be able to give examples of the materials use for each of the
N. DWYER
above
Making Electricity
This is a typical nuclear fission
reactor.
A nuclear power station is
similar to a power station
powered by the combustion of
fossil fuels or biomass. In such a
station the fuel is burnt in a
boiler, the heat this produces it
uses to heat water into steam in
the pipes that cover the roof and
walls of the boiler. This steam is
used to turn a turbine which is
connected to a generator that
produces electricity (see GCSE
Physics 3 and A2 Unit 4). Steam
enters the cooling towers where is it condensed into water to be used again.
In a nuclear fission reactor the heat is produced in a different way.
Components of a Nuclear Reactor

Fuel Rods
This is where nuclear fission reactions happen. They are made or Uranium and there are
hundreds of them spread out in a grid like pattern.
Natural Uranium is a mixture of different isotope. The most common are U 238 which
accounts for 99.28% and U235 which accounts for only 0.72% of it. 238 will only undergo
fission when exposed to very high-energy neutrons whilst 235 will undergo fission much
more easily. The Uranium that is used in fuel rods has a higher percentage of 235 and is
said to be enriched. This is so more fission reactions may take place.
Moderator
Role: The neutrons that are given out from nuclear fission are travelling too fast to cause
another fission process. They are released at 1 x 10 7 m/s and must be slowed to 2 x 103
m/s, losing 99.99975% of their kinetic energy. The neutrons collide with the atoms of the
moderator which turns the kinetic energy into heat.
Neutrons that are travelling slow enough to cause a fission process are called thermal
neutrons, this is because they have the same amount of kinetic energy as the atoms of
the moderator (about 0.025 eV at 20C).
Factors affecting the choice of materials: Must have a low mass number to absorb
more kinetic energy with each collision and a low tendency to absorb neutrons so it
doesnt hinder the chain reaction.
Typical materials: graphite and water.
Coolant
Role: Heat is carried from the moderator to the heat exchanger by the coolant. The
pressuriser and the pump move the hot coolant to the heat exchanger, here hot coolant
touches pipes carrying cold water. Heat flows from hot coolant to cold water turning the
water into steam and cooling the coolant. The steam then leaves the reactor (and will turn
a turbine) as the coolant return to the reactor.
Factors affecting the choice of materials: Must be able to carry large amounts of heat
(L11 The Specifics), must be gas or liquid, non-corrosive, non-flammable and a poor
neutron absorber (less likely to become radioactive).
Typical materials: carbon dioxide and water.
Control rods
Role: For the reactor to transfer energy at a constant rate each nuclear fission reaction
must lead to one more fission reaction. Since each reaction gives out two or more we
must remove some of the extra neutrons. The control rods absorb neutrons, reducing the
amount of nuclear fission processes occurring and making the power output constant.
They can be lowered further into the fuel rods to absorb more neutrons and further reduce
the amount of fission occurring. Some neutrons leave the reactor without interacting,
some travel too fast while other are absorbed by U238 nuclei. If we need more neutrons we
can raise the control rods.
Factors affecting the choice of materials: Ability to absorb neutrons and a high
melting point.
Typical materials: boron and cadmium.
Unit 5
Lesson 9
Learning
Outcomes
Nuclear Safety Aspects

To be able to list and explain the safety features of a nuclear reactor
To be able to explain how an emergency shut-down happens in a nuclear reactor
To be able to state and explain the methods of nuclear waste
N. DWYER
disposal
Nuclear Reactor Safety

There are many safety features and controls in place designed to minimise the risk of
harm to humans and the surrounding environment.
Fuel Used
Using solids rather than liquids avoids the danger of leaks or spillages. They are inserted
and removed from the reactor by remote controlled handling devices.
Shielding
The reactor core (containing the fuel, moderator and control rods) is made from steel and
designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures.
The core itself is inside a thick, leak proof concrete box which absorbs escaping neutrons
and gamma radiation.
Around the concrete box is a safety area, not to be entered by humans.
Emergency Shut-down
There are several systems in place to make it impossible for a nuclear disaster to take
place:
If the reactor needs stopping immediately the control rods are inserted fully into the core,
they absorb any neutrons present and stop any further reactions from happening.
Some reactors have a secondary set of control rods held up by an electromagnet, so if a

power cut happens the control rods fall into the core.
If there is a loss of coolant and the temperature of the core rises beyond the safe working
limits an emergency cooling system floods the core (with nitrogen gas or water) to cool it
and absorb any spare neutrons.
Nuclear Waste Disposal

There are three levels of waste, each is produced, handled and disposed of in different
ways:
High-level Radioactive Waste
What it is? Spent fuel rods from the reactor and unwanted, highly radioactive material
separated from the spent fuel rods.
How do we get rid? The spent fuel rods are taken from the reactor and stored in cooling
ponds with in the power station to allow most of the short-term radioactivity to die away.
It is then transported to a processing plant. Here it is encased in steel containers and kept
under water.
The cladding is eventually removed and the fuel rods are separated into unused uranium
and plutonium and highly radioactive waste.
The uranium and plutonium is kept in sealed container for possible future use.
The waste is converted into powder, fused into glass blocks, sealed in air-cooled
containers for around 50 years before being stored deep underground in a stable rock
formation.
Time scale? Up to a year in the cooling ponds. Radioactive waste can remain at
dangerous levels for thousands of years.
Intermediate-level Radioactive Waste
What it is? Fuel element cladding, sludge from treatment processes, contaminated
equipment, hospital radioisotopes and containers of radioactive materials.
How do we get rid? Sealed in steel drums that are encased in concrete and stored in
buildings with reinforced concrete. Also stored deep underground in a suitable location
that has a stable rock formation and low water flow.
Time scale? Thousands of years.
Low-level Radioactive Waste
What is it? Worn-out laboratory equipment, used protective clothing, wrapping material
and cooling pond water.
How do we get rid? Sealed in metal drums and buried deep underground in a
supervised repository. Treated cooling pond water is released into the environment.
Time scale? A few months.
Unit 5
Lesson 10
Learning
Outcomes
Heat, Temperature and Internal

Energy
To know what internal energy is
To be able to explain the difference between heat, temperature and internal
energy
To be able to explain what absolute zero is and how it was found
N. DWYER
Internal Energy
The internal energy of a substance is due to the vibrations/movement energy of the
particles (kinetic) and the energy due to the bonds holding them together (potential).
Solids: In a solid the particles are arranged in a regular fixed structure, they cannot move
from their position in the structure but can vibrate. The internal energy of a solid is due to
the kinetic energy of the vibrating particles and the potential energy from the bonds
between them.
Liquids: In a liquid the particles vibrate and are free to move around but are still in
contact with each other. The forces between them are less than when in solid form. The
internal energy of a liquid is due to the kinetic and potential energies of the particles but
since they are free to slide past each other the potential energy is less than that of it in
solid form.
Gases: In a gas particles are free to move in all directions with high speeds. There are
almost no forces of attraction between them. The internal energy of a gas is almost
entirely due to the kinetic energy of the particles.
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of
the particles in the substance. As we can see from the
graph something with a high temperature means the
particles are vibrating/moving with higher average
speeds that a substance at a lower temperature.
It is possible for two objects/substances to be at the
same temperature but have different internal
energies. We will go into this further in the next
lesson: The Specifics.
Heat
Heat is the flow of thermal energy and it flows from a high temperature to a low
temperature.
If two objects are at the same temperature we say that they are in thermal equilibrium
and no heat flows.
If object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B and object B is in thermal equilibrium
with object C then A and C must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Get into a hot or cold bath and energy is transferred:
In a cold bath thermal energy is transferred from your body to the water.
In a hot bath thermal energy is transferred from the water to your body.
As the energy is transferred you and the water become the same temperature. When this
happens there is no longer a flow of energy so no more heat. You both still have a
temperature due to the vibrations of your particles but there is no longer a temperature
difference so there is no longer a flow of energy.
Temperature Scale
The Celsius scale was established by giving the temperature at which water becomes ice
a value of 0 and the temperature at which it
boils a value of 100. Using these fixed points a
scale was created.
Absolute Zero and Kelvins

In 1848 William Thomson came up with the
Kelvin scale for temperature. He measured the
pressure caused by gases at known
temperatures (in C) and plotted the results. He
found a graph like this one.
By extrapolating his results he found the temperature at which a gas would exert zero
pressure. Since pressure is caused by the collisions of the gas particles with the container,
zero pressure means the particles are not moving and have a minimum internal energy. At
this point the particle stops moving completely and we call this temperature absolute
zero, it is not possible to get any colder. This temperature is -273C.
1 Kelvin is the same size as 1 degree Celsius but the Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero.
C = K 273
K = C + 273
The Specifics
Unit 5
Lesson 11
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to explain and calculate specific heat capacity

To be able to explain and calculate specific latent heat
To know the correct units to use and the assumptions we make in
energy transfer
N. DWYER
Specific Heat Capacity

We know that when we heat a substance the temperature will increase. The equation that
links heat (energy) and temperature is:
Q mcT
c is the specific heat capacity which is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kg of a substance by 1 degree. It can be thought of as the heat energy 1 kg of the
substance can hold before the temperature will increase by 1 degree.
Specific Heat Capacity is measured in Joules per kilogram per Kelvin, J/kg K or J
kg-1 K-1
Water Analogy
We can think of the energy being transferred as volume of water. Consider two
substances: one with a high heat capacity represented by 250 ml beakers and one with a
low heat capacity represented by 100 ml beakers. When a beaker is full the temperature
of the substance will increase by 1 degree.
We can see that 2 litres of water will fill 8 of the 250 ml beakers or 20 of the 100ml
beakers meaning the same amount of energy can raise the temperature of the first
substance by 8 degrees or the second by 20 degrees.
Changes of State
When a substance changes state there is no change in temperature.
When a solid is heated energy is
transferred to the particles making them
vibrate more which means the
temperature increases. The potential
energy of the solid remains constant but
the kinetic energy increases.
At melting point the particles do not
vibrate any faster, meaning the kinetic
energy and temperature are constant. The
bonds that keep the particles in a rigid
shape are broken and the potential energy
increases.
In liquid form the particles are still in
contact with each other but can slide past
each other. As more energy is transferred
the particles vibrate more. The kinetic
energy increases but the potential energy is constant.
At boiling point the particles do not vibrate any faster, meaning the kinetic energy and
temperature are constant. The bonds holding the particles together are all broken, this
takes much more energy than when melting since all the bonds need to be broken.
When a gas is heated the particles move faster, meaning the kinetic energy and
temperature increases. The potential energy stays constant.
Specific Latent Heat

Different substances require different amounts of energy to change them from solid to
liquid and from liquid to gas. The energy required is given by the equation:
Q ml
l represents the specific latent heat which is the energy required to change 1 kg of a
substance from solid to liquid or liquid to gas without a change in temperature.
Specific Latent Heat is measured in Joules per kilogram, J/kg or J kg -1
The specific latent heat of fusion is the energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required to change 1 kg of liquid into
gas.
As we have just discussed, changing from a liquid to a gas takes more energy than
changing a solid into a gas, so the specific latent heat of vaporisation is higher than the
specific latent heat of fusion.
Unit 5
Lesson 12
Learning
Outcomes
Gas Laws
To know and be able to use the correct units for volume, temperature and
pressure
To be able to state Boyles Charles and the Pressure law for gases
To be able to sketch the graphs that show these laws
N. DWYER
Gas Properties
Volume, V: This is the space occupied by the particles that make up the gas.
Volume is measured in metres cubed, m3
Temperature, T: This is a measure of the internal energy of the gas and this is equal to the
average kinetic energy of its particles.
Temperature is measured in Kelvin, K
Pressure, p: When a gas particle collides with the walls of its container it causes a
pressure. Pressure is given by the equation pressure = Force/Area or force per unit area.
Pressure is measured in pascals, Pa
1 pascal is equal to a pressure of 1 newton per square metre.
Understanding the Gas Laws

We are about to look at the three different laws that all gases obey. To help
us understand them let us apply each one to a simple model. Image one
ball in a box; the pressure is a measure of how many collisions between
the ball and the box happen in a certain time, the volume is the area of
the box and the temperature is the average speed of the ball. To simply
thing further let us assume it is only moving back and forth in the x
direction.
Boyles Law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume when kept at a constant temperature.
1
p
for constant T
V
Think about it
If temperature is constant this means that the ball is travelling at
a fixed, constant speed. If we increase the size of the box it
makes fewer collisions in the same time because it has to travel
further before it collides with the side. If we make the box smaller
the ball will collide with the box more often since it has less
distance to travel.
Charles Law
All gases expand at the same rate when heated. The volume of a
fixed mass of gas is proportional to its temperature when kept at
a constant pressure.
V T for constant p
Think about it
If pressure is constant that means that the same number of
collisions with the box are taking place. So if the box was made
bigger the ball would have to move faster to make sure there
were the same amount of collisions per unit time.
The Pressure Law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is proportional to its
temperature when kept at a constant volume.
p T for constant V
Think about it
If the volume in constant it means the box has a fixed size. If we
increase the speed at which the ball is moving it will hit the sides
of the box more often. If we slow the ball down it will hit the sides
less often.
Unit 5
Lesson 13
Ideal Gases
Learning
Outcomes
To be able to calculate the pressure, volume or temperature of a gas

To know and be able to use the ideal gas equation
To know the significance of Avogadros constant, Boltzmanns
constant and moles
N. DWYER
Messing with Gases
pV T
The three gas laws can be combined to give us the equation:
pV
constant
We can rearrange this to give:
T
We can use this to derive a very useful equation to compare the pressure, volume and
temperature of a gas that is changed from one state (p1, V1, T1) to another (p2, V2, T2).
p1V1
pV
2 2
T1
T2
Temperatures must be in Kelvin, K
Avogadro and the Mole

One mole of a material has a mass of M grams, where M is the molecular mass in atomic
mass units, u. Oxygen has a molecular mass of 16, so 1 mole of Oxygen atoms has a
mass of 16g, 2 moles has a mass of 32g and so on. An Oxygen molecule is made of two
atoms so it has a molecular mass of 32g. This means 16g would be half a mole of Oxygen
molecules.
m
n
where n is the number of moles, m is the mass and M is the
M
molecular mass.
Avogadro suggested that one mole of any substance contains the same number of
particles, he found this to be 6.02 x 1023. This gives us a second way of calculating the
number of moles
N
n
where N is the number of particles and NA is the Avogadro constant.
NA
NA is the Avogadro Constant, NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
Ideal Gases
pV
constant
T
Ideal gases all behave in the same way so we can assign a letter to the constant. The
equation becomes:
pV
R
T
If the volume and temperature of a gas are kept constant then the pressure depends on R
and the number of particles in the container. We must take account of this by bringing the
number of moles, n, into the equation:
pV
pV nRT
nR
T
R is the Molar Gas Constant, R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
This is called the equation of state for an ideal gas. The concept of ideal gases is used to
approximate the behaviour of real gases. Real gases can become liquids at low
temperatures and high pressures.
We know from the three gas laws that
Using the Avogadros equation for n we can derive a new equation for an ideal gas:
N
R
pV N
T
pV
RT
pV nRT
NA
NA
Boltzmann Constant cheeky!

Boltzmann noticed that R and NA in the above equation are constants, so dividing one by
the other will always give the same answer. The Boltzmann constant is represented by k
and is given as
R
k
NA
k is the Boltzmann Constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
pV nRT can become pV N
R
T which can also be written as
NA
pV NkT
Molecular Kinetic Theory

Model
Unit 5
Lesson 14
To be able to list the assumptions needed to derive an equation for the pressure
of a gas
To be able to derive an equation for the pressure of a gas
To be able to calculate the mean kinetic energy of a gas molecule
N. DWYER
Learning
Outcomes
Assumptions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
There are a very large number of molecules (N)

Molecules have negligible volume compared to the container
The molecules show random motion (ranges of speeds and directions)
Newtons Laws of Motion can be applied to the molecules
Collisions are elastic and happen quickly compared to the time between collisions
There are no intermolecular forces acting other than when they collide
The Big, Bad Derivation

The molecules move in all directions. Let us start with one molecule of mass m travelling
with velocity vx. It collides with the walls of the container, each wall has a length of L.
Calculate the change in momentum: before it moves with velocity vx and after the collision
it move with vx . mv (mv x ) ( mv x ) mv 2mv x Equation 1
The time can be given by using distance/speed: the speed is vx and the distance is twice
the length of the box (the distance to collide and then collide again with the same wall)
2L
t
Equation 2
vx
2mv x
v
F
F 2mvx . x
mv
2L
L
2
Force can be calculated by: F
Substitute in Equation 1 and
2
t
v
F mv x
container.
L
Equation 3, gives the force of one molecule acting on the side of the
We can now calculate the pressure this one molecule causes in the x direction:
p
F
A
Substituting Equation 3
Equation 4
mv x
p
mv
p 3x
L
mv x
p
V
(If we assume that the box is a cube, we can replace L3 with V, both units
are m )
All the molecules of the gas have difference speeds in the x direction. We can find the
pressure in the x direction due to them all by first using the mean value of vx and then
3
multiplying it by N, the total number of molecules: p
mv x
V
mv x
p
V
Nmv x Equation 5
p
V
Equation 5 gives us the pressure in the x direction.
But since the
The mean speed in all directions is given

by:c 2 v x 2 v x 2 v x 2 average velocities
in all directions are
We can substitute this into the Equation 5 for pressure above:
equal:
2
1
Nmv x
c2
2
pV Nmc 2 Equation
pV Nmv x
pV Nm
p
3
3
V
c 2 3v x
2
c
2
vx
3
Kinetic Energy of a Gas

From the equation we have just derived we can find an equation for the mean kinetic
energy of a gas:
1
1
2
2
Since pV Nmc and pV nRT combine these to get Nmc nRT Equation 7
3
3
2
Kinetic energy is given by E K 12 mv so we need to make the above equation look the
same.
1
1
nRT
3nRT
1
3nRT
Nmc 2 nRT
mc 2
mc 2
mc 2
3
3
N
N
2
2N
N
1
n
1
3RT
N
n
mc 2
NA
NA
N
N
2
2N A
n
A
R
1
3
k
mc 2 kT
Dont forget that cheeky chap Boltzmann
NA
2
2
Equation 8

A Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AS Physics

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and

Mechanics, Materials and Waves

1 Constituents of the Atom

1 Scalars and Vectors

Constituents of the Atom

The Nuclear Model

(Also seen in GCSE

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

Cl which accounts for ~25%. So the average of a large

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

Particles and Antiparticles

To know what is the difference between particles and antiparticles

How is there anything at all?

To know what quarks are and where they are found

Also seen in GCSE Physics 2

The Lone Quark?

Made from Smaller Stuf

To be able to explain what a lepton is

Anti Tauon Neutrino

Forces and Exchange

The Four Interactions

The gravitational interaction causes an attractive force between masses.

Which Particle for What Force

What is acts upon

Borrowing Energy to Make Particles

The Strong Interaction

To know why a nucleus doesnt collapse in on itself

The Strong Interaction

Neutrons Nuclear Cement

Adding another proton

The Weak Interaction

To be able to write the equation for alpha and beta decay

Beta Decay and the Neutrino

Beta Minus () Decay

Beta Plus ( ) Decay

Lepton number is conserved

Lepton number is conserved

To know what a Feynman diagram shows us

Diagram 5 represents electron capture. A proton captures an electron and becomes a

Getting the Exchange Particle

The Photoelectric Effect

Explaining the Photoelectric Efect

hf 0 which can be rearranged to give: f 0

Excitation, Ionisation and

The Problem with Atoms

To be able to explain what electron diffraction shows us

which is sometime written as

We can substitute this into

To be able to explain what current, charge, voltage/potential difference and

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

Ohms Laws and I-V Graphs

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

Three Special Resistors

(Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)

where is the resistivity

Series and Parallel Circuits

(Also seen in GCSE