Direct Electrical Arc Ignition of Hybrid Rocket Motors
Direct Electrical Arc Ignition of Hybrid Rocket Motors
Direct Electrical Arc Ignition of Hybrid Rocket Motors
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Graduate Studies
2015
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Copyright
Michael I. Judson Jr
2015
iii
Abstract
Direct Electrical Arc Ignition of Hybrid Rocket Motors
by
Hybrid rockets motors provide distinct safety advantages when compared to traditional liquid or solid propellant systems, due to the inherent stability and relative
inertness of the propellants prior to established combustion. As a result of this inherent propellant stability, hybrid motors have historically proven dicult to ignite. State
of the art hybrid igniter designs continue to require solid or liquid reactants distinct
from the main propellants. These ignition methods however, reintroduce to the hybrid
propulsion system the safety and complexity disadvantages associated with traditional
liquid or solid propellants.
novel direct electrostatic arc ignition method for hybrid motors. A series of small prototype stand-alone thrusters demonstrating this technology were successfully designed
and tested using Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) plastic and Gaseous Oxygen
(GOX) as propellants. Measurements of input voltage and current demonstrated that
arc-ignition will occur using as little as 10 watts peak power and less than 5 joules total
energy. The motor developed for the stand-alone small thruster was adapted as a gas
generator to ignite a medium-scale hybrid rocket motor using nitrous oxide /and HTPB
as propellants. Multiple consecutive ignitions were performed. A large data set as well as
a collection of development `lessons learned' were compiled to guide future development
iv
and research.
has been developed into a reliable, operational igniter system for a 75mm hybrid motor
using both gaseous oxygen and liquid nitrous oxide as oxidizers. A development map
of the direct spark ignition concept is presented showing the ow of key lessons learned
between this original work and later follow on development.
(89 pages)
Public Abstract
Direct Electrical Arc Ignition of Hybrid Rocket Motors
by
Hybrid rockets motors provide distinct safety advantages when compared to traditional liquid or solid propellant systems, due to the inherent stability and relative
inertness of the propellants prior to established combustion.
have historically proven dicult to ignite. State of the art hybrid igniter designs continue to require solid or liquid reactants distinct from the main propellants.
These
ignition methods reintroduce to the hybrid propulsion system the safety and complexity
disadvantages associated with traditional liquid or solid propellants. The results of this
study demonstrates the feasibility of a novel direct electrostatic arc ignition method for
hybrid motors.
technology were successfully designed and tested during this work, including a small gas
generator motor used for multiple sucessive ignitions of a medium-scale hybrid rocket
motor. These tests resulted in a large data set, and a collection of development `lessons
learned', that were compiled as a guide for future development and research.
Since
the completion of this research, the direct electrostatic arc ignition concept has been
developed into a reliable, operational igniter system for a 75mm hybrid motor.
(89 pages)
vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my adviser, Dr. Stephen Whitmore, whose advice, guidance,
and enthusiasm facilitated my work and allowed me to gain invaluable experience.
deeply appreciate the support of my comitee members, Dr. David Geller and Dr. Rees
Fulmer.
I also owe much appreciation to the other members of the hybrid motor research
group, who established much of the test infrastructure and processes that made my
research possible. Shannon Eilers, Zach Peterson, Matthew Wilson, Jonathan McCulley,
and Andrew Bath worked diligently to build the test capabilities that currently exist.
The construction of key pieces of hardware for this project were made possible
through the skill of our machinist Terry Zolinger.
Chesley who kindly opened the test cell for testing on multiple early weekend mornings.
Above all I am greatful to my wife, Sarah, whose patience and encouragement during
my research were nothing short of heroic.
Michael Judson
vii
Contents
Page
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Public Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
v
vi
ix
x
xii
1
1.1
Research Motivation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
1.2.1
Solid Motors
1.2.2
Liquid Engines
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Hybrid Motors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
Hypergolic Ignition
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.3
13
1.5.4
Catalyzed Ignition
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.5.5
14
1.5.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
15
1.6
. . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.7
17
1.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................
2.1
2.2
19
23
. . . . . . . . . .
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2.1
2.2.2
27
2.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.4.1
Test Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.4.2
Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
viii
2.5
2.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
43
3.2
45
3.3
46
3.4
47
3.5
49
3.6
55
3.7
57
3.8
61
3.9
61
4 Conclusion
................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.1
Electrode Conguration
4.2
Arcing Voltage
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.3
73
4.4
74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ix
List of Tables
Table
Page
1.1
. . . . .
17
2.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2
31
2.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.4
34
3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.4
52
3.5
55
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
List of Figures
Figure
1.1
Page
Rocketdyne F1Propellant Manifold Diagram Showing Enlarged Detail of
Integrated Hypergolic Igniter (adapted from [1]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.3
14
1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.6
20
1.7
22
2.1
. . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.2
37
2.3
37
2.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.6
39
2.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.8
39
2.9
40
40
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
xi
2.14 98mm Igniter Grain Geometries and Electrode Conguration Comparison
42
3.1
50
3.2
51
3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.4
54
3.5
57
3.6
58
3.7
59
3.8
60
3.9
63
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
67
xii
Nomenclature
HTPB
AP
ISP
TRL
MH##
Hydroxyl-Terminated Polybutadiene
Ammonium Perchlorate
Specic Impulse
Technology Readiness Level
Microhybrid test designation numbering scheme
FDM
ABS
CB
CEA
HVPS
Vsp
Carbon Black
Chemical Equilibrium with Applications
High Voltage Power Supply
Specic Volume
Chapter 1
Introduction and Background
1.1 Research Motivation
Hybrid rocket ignition has historically posed unique challenges, with state of the
art solutions continuing to involve carrying reactive materials distinct from the main
propellants. In many cases the ignition process may negate much of the hybrid motor's
inherent simplicity or safety and may deny the ability to restart the motor. This study
seeks to demonstrate a restartable, miniaturized, hybrid motor using electrostatic arc
ignition which may be used as the basis for either a stand-alone thruster or as a hot gas
generator (igniter) for the ignition of larger motors. The concept for this microhybrid
motor and ignition system consists of electrode pathways embedded into the hybrid fuel
grain, between which a high voltage spark is formed. The spark ablates solid fuel into
the oxidizer and provides the initiation energy required to ignite the propellants. This
initial combustion causes further fuel ablation leading to a self-sustaining reaction.
This ignition concept allows for hybrid motor systems which fully realize the safety,
simplicity, and restartablility advantages which are often cited in connection with hybrid
motors [5].
Because the concept uses a spark to directly ignite the main propellants,
Motor restarts are limited only by the quantity of propellants carried, and
2
fuel elements are mixed and burned creating high energy gas ow. This gas is allowed
to escape through a convergent-divergent nozzle accelerating the ow to high speed.
Within chemical rockets three main categories exist, grouped primarily by the phase
at which the various propellant constituents are stored. Solid propellant motors store an
oxidizer and fuel element in a premixed solid grain within the combustion chamber. Liquid rockets store one or more propellants in tanks external to the combustion chamber.
During operation these propellants are forced into the combustion chamber where they
are allowed to react. Hybrid rockets combine aspects of both liquids and solids, with
typical implementations using a solid fuel grain stored within the combustion chamber
and a liquid oxidizer stored in a tank external to the motor. Upon ignition, the liquid
oxidizer is injected into the combustion chamber where it reacts with the fuel element.
Each of these three categories carries advantages and disadvantages to be described in
the following sections.
from a compact form factor, they have found use extensively in missiles. Other typical
uses include strap-on or main stage boosters for launch vehicles, apogee kick motors,
and ejection/escape systems.
3
A signicant drawback to solid motors is the inability to actively throttle or shutdown and restart the motor in ight.
opment of grain designs which produce specic thrust prole over the duration of the
burn [7], however such an `open-loop' method does not allow for a response to measured
in-ight conditions. Systems, such as the Hercules M57 Motor used on the Minute Man
series of ICBMs, which perform a controlled rupture of the combustion chamber pressure vessel have been developed [8] in order to control the total impulse delivered to the
vehicle. However, for missions that require inight control of the propulsion system the
applicability of solids remains limited. Throttling has been attempted using pintle type
throat area constriction [9] or through breaking the grain into distinct sections separated
by a combustion inhibiting layer [10], though these technologies typically carry a lower
TRL and impose additional constraints on the overall vehicle system.
Though attempts have been made at reusable solid motors such, these have had
questionable economic and technical benet, and so typical solid motor system designs
are cable of single use only.
achieve up to 450 s vacuum ISP [4]. This increase in performance however comes with
a corresponding increase in complexity and development costs.
The highest performing liquid propellants are cryogenic and are not long term
storable in the space environment.
torically all common implementations have been highly toxic, carcinogenic, corrosive
or a combination of more than one of these undesirable characteristics [11].
Because
of costs associated with handling these highly dangerous materials [12] investment has
been made into so called `green' propellant combinations, which typically involve nitrous
4
oxide as the oxidizing agent [13]. These engines, while oering promising alternatives to
toxic propellants, typically suer from lower performance and currently still have lower
TRL.
Mono propellant engines are a subset of liquid propulsion systems which use a single
liquid component that is decomposed exothermically typically with the use of a catalyst
bed. Often catalyst beds require an external heat source, typically an electro-resistive
type heater, to raise the catalyst to a sucient temperature to begin the reaction.
Hydrazine or to a lesser extent hydrogen peroxide are the most commonly used propellants. These propellants have the advantage of being space storable. ISP performance is
medium, with typical values in the range of 234 s in vacuum. Monopropellant thrusters
based in hydrazine have a long ight heritage down to the sub 1 N thrust level [14]. The
catalytic decomposition ignition occurs passively simply by opening the main propellant
valve thus increasing simplicity and scalability and allowing for reignition capability that
is only constrained by available propellant. The technology scales well, though thruster
volume and mass properties for very small thrusters are typically dominated by the valve
design.
The current state of the art monopropellant fuels are highly toxic, carcinogenic,
and/or corrosive and therefor can pose serious safety challenges.
to severely elevated costs associated with the handling operations surrounding vehicles
using these propellants. Especially, in the case of small low-cost satellites, these costs,
and the requisite infrastructure for safe handling, may be prohibitive [12, 15]. Although
procedures are in place to allow hydrazine to be managed safely on tightly controlled military ranges and has own multiple times on DoD and NASA-owned ight experiments;
the toxicity and explosion potential of hydrazine requires extreme handling precautions.
Increasingly, with a growing regulatory burden and infrastructure requirements associated with hydrazine transport, storage, servicing, and clean up of accidental releases,
operating costs for hydrazine are becoming prohibitive. Extreme handling precautions
generally do not favor hydrazine as a propellant for secondary payloads.
In 2003 a
5
study performed by EADS for the European Space Agency (ESA) showed the potential for considerable operational cost savings by simplifying propellant ground handing
procedures [15]. Hydrazine also has the disadvantage of oering only modest mass and
volumetric eciency, with Isp ~ 220-240 sec, Vsp ~ 220-240 g-sec/cm3.
6
the same reason, hybrids are less prone to start-up overpressure events or `hard-starts'
caused by incomplete or delayed ignition. The greatly decreased probability of hard start
contributes to the potential for signicantly less expensive hybrid motor development
when compared to similar sized liquid engines.
Common hybrid motor propellants include Nitrous Oxide or liquid oxygen combined
with HTPB rubber or other solid hydrocarbon-based polymers. The most commonly employed fuel is HTPB, a legacy binder left over from solid propulsion development. These
propellants are generally safe to handle with established industrial standards, leading to
increased safety of ground support operations and decreased costs for development and
implementation.
Because of low regression rates of solid fuels used in hybrids, typical motors must
be designed with long chamber lengths or increased grain complexity (multiple ports) in
order to provide sucient burning surface area to input sucient fuel into the combustion gases. Long chamber motors pose packaging issues for systems employing hybrids
and shortening though multi-port congurations typically negatively aects eective
fuel storage density and dry mass though the increase in fuel residuals.
Solutions to
the hybrid packaging issue however exists in novel grain designs such as proposed by
Eilers [18] and Whitmore et al. [19] or higher regression fuel formulations such as those
implemented by Space Propulsion Group [20].
suered from lower performance compared with well optimized liquid and solid systems,
with current state of the art motors achieving 250-280s ISP depending on the specic
propellant combination [4]. Additionally, for some fuel grain geometries, system eective dry mass is increased by fuel residuals that cannot be eectively burned out of the
combustion chamber.
Hybrids have the capability to ll niche applications where safety advantages are
weighted more heavily than typical standard performance measures.
Because a wide
variety of non-toxic, relatively stable, propellants are available for hybrid systems, decreased performance may be traded for increased safety and simplicity.
A small satel-
lite system may be dened as those with a total (wet) mass less than 500 kg.
Small
spacecraft continue to be an area of interest to both government and commercial entities [21] [22]. Satellites in the Small Satellite range have the advantage of faster development time frames, lower development and launch costs, increased mission exibility,
and the potential for mission objective risk reduction through distribution of risk among
many cooperative spacecraft. The miniaturization of satellite technology presents several
challenges however to the subsystem groups that form the basic spacecraft infrastructure.
propulsion all require special consideration due to challenges of miniaturization for these
spacecraft. With the revolution of lower cost miniaturized electronic systems, a number
of commercial ventures are seeking to capitalize on the potential of small satellites.
No dedicated launch vehicle currently exists for small satellites, though a number
are in development [23]. Presently, the primary orbital accesses opportunity for this type
as space craft exists as a ride share transport as secondary payload on a large traditional
launch vehicle. This further complicates the requirements for a small spacecraft propulsion system because especially strict safety requirements are placed on any propulsion
unit carried as a secondary payload. Reducing risk for the primary payload will generally
take precedent over secondary payload mission considerations, thus any propulsion unit
designed for a secondary payload must often make safety the top design priority. Further
miniaturization of safe, high performance, micro propulsion units is required to enable
many envisioned small sat missions. Requirements specic to propulsion systems carried
as a secondary payload include: long term storability, ease and safety of integration with
the launch vehicle, and maximizing inertness before and during integration.
A number of potential options exist at various states Technology Readiness Level.
No single Silver Bullet propulsion system currently covers the requirements of most
8
mission in the area of small satellites; rather trades must be evaluated to match a
propulsion system with the specic requirements for each mission.
When evaluating
propulsion systems for small satellites, especially those carried as secondary payloads,
the trade space of propulsion options is limited.
The relative strengths, weaknesses, and features of the current state of the art
propulsion systems informed areas for focus in the development of the microthruster
motor and igniter which was explored during this research eort. The electrostatic arc
ignition microhybrid concept presented here has applicability for many small satellite
missions with the potential for nearly inert long term storage, and a high degree of
inherent safety simplicity.
also found that ABS and HTPB regression rates were comparable
leading to the possibility of substituting ABS for HTPB without major performance
penalties.
When considering manufacture and system level trades, ABS has a number of mechanical and chemical properties that make it attractive over HTPB. Because ABS is a
thermoplastic, it can be formed into complex geometries without using a casting process, i.e.
the initial forming processes. For a thermoset like HTPB, complex geometries are restricted by the requirement to remove a mandrel or other tooling used in the casting
9
processes and post casting shaping is dicult or impossible. Mechanically, ABS is much
more rigid and, therefore for some motors, may allow the fuel to provide a signicant
portion of the motor structure. These advantages made ABS a prime candidate for the
igniter developed in this study, allowing for rapid iteration of fuel grain geometries with
complex embedded electrode pathways.
10
reliable ignition.
Hypergols have been used as the ignition system for non-hypergolic main propellants
by leading the main propellant ow with a `plug' of a hypergolic of pyrophoric liquid.
Propellant systems, such as the Rocketdyne F1 shown in Figure 1.1, have successfully
implemented this type of hypergolic ignition by storing hypergolic reactants in the feed
line ahead of the main propellant [27]. In such a system, when propellant ow is initiated,
the hypergolic reactants are pushed into the chamber ahead of main propellant ow thus
igniting the chamber. The ignition system is thus reduced in complexity by removing
the need to carefully coordinate the timing of main propellant valves to igniter events.
11
Because a single event (opening the main propellant valves) directly controls both the
igniter ow as well as main propellant ow, the system is made more robust against
variability in valve opening and manifold ll times. This approach allows for bipropellant
systems to use hypergolic ignition without the need for an additional self-contained uid
systems. However, in hybrid or solid systems attempting to use hypergolic ignition, a
separate igniter uid system is still be required, as hypergols necessarily require a two
uid line system in order to keep the components separated before the desired ignition
event.
Fig. 1.1: Rocketdyne F1Propellant Manifold Diagram Showing Enlarged Detail of Integrated Hypergolic Igniter (adapted from [1])
Most importantly, due to their high levels of reactivity, all commonly implemented
hypergols have the disadvantage of high toxicity and/or carcinogenicity.
Additionally
For systems requiring restart capability, additional tanks, feedlines and valves
12
Pyrotechnic Ignition
As shown in Figure 1.2, pyrotechnic igniters are essentially small solid motor fuel
grains. Pyrotechnic ignitors are the mostly commonly used method for hybrid rocket systems due to simplicity and reliability. Because pyrotechnics are premixed solid oxidizer
and fuel combinations, no uid feed lines are required. Pyrotechnics are typically initiated electrically using an electronic match or squib, which is itself a small self-contained
pyrotechnic with a resistive bridge wire embedded in a heat sensitive reactant.
Special handling procedures for pyrotechnic igniters are required due to the same
considerations applicable to solid motors and likewise are susceptible to HERO [6] considerations. Nearly all pyrotechnic igniters are single use and cannot be restarted. A
limited number of exceptions to this rule exist which have been proposed or tested experimentally [3, 10], though these carry low TRL. Most importantly, employing pyrotechnic
ignitors serves to defeat inherently safe properties of hybrid systems.
13
tants then builds the necessary power release level to ensure reliable and timely ignition
of the main propellant.
ignition sources to the light the main engine propellants [4], though these are typically
restricted to very small engines such as reaction control system thrusters. Commonly,
main propellants are diverted into this augmented spark or torch igniter, though distinct
dedicated ignition propellants may be used, especially in the case of hybrid motors where
dual liquid propellants are unavailable.
Augmented spark igniters have been successfully implemented with a high degree of
reliability in a number of systems such as the SSME and J2 liquid engines [4], however
these ignition systems carry the disadvantages inherent to liquid bi-propellants, including
increased complexity and the potential for hard start. For bipropellant liquid systems, an
augmented spark igniter provides the advantage of operating with the main propellants,
avoiding complications that arise from carrying additional distinct igniter reactants,
however this advantage is lost in the application to hybrids where at least on additional
dedicated liquid reactant is required.
14
Such systems hold the potential for hybrid motor ignition without additional reactants
as well as nontoxic monopropellant systems.
remain however, primary among which is maintaining the integrity of the catalyst during
operation. Additionally, catalyst bed preheating is typically necessary placing additional
constraints on the system by requiring large power and current supplies and introducing
an inherent system response latency.
In typical
operation a plasma torch igniter uses either spark gap discharge or electrically generated
radio frequency induction to heat a gas that is then discharged into the combustion
chamber. The owing gas may be one of the propellants such as hydrogen or methane.
15
Thus the system may be designed to use only the main propellants without the need for
separate reactants.
A distinct disadvantage of plasma torch igniters is the need for high electrical power
input. Because the energy to heat the gas is provided electrically without any augmentation from chemical reactions large currents and power levels are required.
channeled, often through a sonic throat, to ignite either the main ow or an even larger
quantity of igniter reactants. Thus energy is added to the ow in a controlled manner
and at no point is there the risk of collecting signicant quantities of uncombusted oxidizer and fuel mixture.
Additionally the igniter may run for some time before main
16
the igniter chamber and throat must be considered along with methods for passing
hot gas into the chamber.
hypergolic ignition systems, multi-stage ignition involving at least one step between
initiation and main chamber ignition has historically been the only practical method to
assure controlled ignition of the main ow.
itself may typically be shut o and restarted with relative ease, the diculty arises
in the design of the igniter.
unique challenges with the current ignition solution space lacking. Table 1.1 tabulates
the specic disadvantages of state of the art ignition systems for use in hybrid motors.
17
Table 1.1: Hybrid Motor State of the Art Ignition Systems Disadvantages
Type
Pyrotechnics Negates some safety advantages; Typically only single ignition capability
Negates safety by carrying toxic reactants with explosive
potential; Signicant increase in complexity due to required
Hypergol
Augmented
spark
High electrical power draw; Physically large external power unit
Plasma torch
(EPU)
Viable solution for H2O2 oxidized motors, though low TRL for
N2O catalyst systems; Continuing technical challenges with
catalyst degradation in N20 systems; May require large power
draw for catalyst bed preheating; H2O2 not truly a "green"
Catalyst bed
propellant
18
electrical breakdown voltage, a relatively conductive hot plasma path forms between the
voltage electrodes in an electric arc.
vary, electric breakdown has been observed in solids, liquids, and gases.
Gaseous electrical breakdown is especially relevant to this research eort. Paschen
rst observed and characterized the required voltage for electrical breakdown in gasses
in what has come to be known as Paschen's law:
Vb =
Apd
ln (pd) + b
(1.1)
Equation 1.1shows the relationship between breakdown voltage (Vb), and the product of pressure (p) and electrode spacing distance (d). Constants A and b are properties
of the specic gas medium. Figure 1.5 shows the breakdown voltage curves as a function
of p*d for various gasses.
Once electrical breakdown of the insulating material has occurred, a plasma path is
formed between the high voltage electrodes, causing a sharp increase in the conductivity
19
of the current path. If sucient current is available, the energy dissipated is sucient to
maintain the plasma path and a direct current standing arc may be formed. The voltage
and current required to maintain this arc may depend on a number of environmental
factors including the free stream gas composition, interactions with electrode shape and
the velocity of the gas caused by either free convection or forced ow of the gas across
electrodes.
These include
using only the main propellants as igniter reactants and multiple restart capability.
A number of conditions are required to cause self-sustaining combustion within a
hybrid motor.
First, as with any chemical propulsion system, the oxidizer and fuel
elements must be brought into contact and mixed. In a hybrid propellant combination
however, the solid fuel and gaseous or liquid oxidizer will not mix in a way that causes
a combustible mixture without a preexisting source of energy to ablate the solid fuel
into gaseous byproducts which can mix with the oxidizer. This hybrid attribute, while
providing signicant safety advantages to the hybrid system, is also the primary source
of diculties in creating hybrid motor igniters which do not involve additional reactants.
For hybrid motor ignition, in order to attain mixed reactants, the rst condition that
must exist is ablation of the solid fuel into uid components which may then freely mix
with the oxidizing uid.
Second, additional energy must be added to the oxidizer fuel mixture in order to
overcome the activation energy and initiate combustion.
injected as a liquid part of the energy input required may be to cause a phase change
of the liquid to a gases before the reaction can occur. Additionally, some oxidizers such
as nitrous oxide also require signicant energy input to dissociate the oxidizer molecule
into reactive oxidizing components prior to ignition.
20
Figure 1.6 gives an overview of the direct spark igniter concept where high voltage
leads are incorporated directly into the igniter grain. A spark gap is formed between
the embedded electrodes.
occurs through the oxidizer gas in the port across the spark gap. Along the electrical
breakdown path a high temperature and relatively conductive plasma is formed. With
sucient constant current input from the high voltage power supply, the resistivity of the
plasma dissipates sucient energy that the very small amount of gas directly in the arc
path is maintained at plasma temperatures by simple joule heating, and a pseudo stable
circuit is formed through this conductive path. At locations where the arc is in contact
with grain surface, heat transferred from the plasma causes ablation of the solid fuel.
The gaseous fuel products and oxidizer then mix and, with activation energy provided by
the spark plasma, initiate combustion. This combustion causes further ablation of the
solid fuel and the reaction progresses until port pressure rises and the hybrid combustion
becomes self-sustaining.
The use of conductive fuel electrodes or a spark which travels along the surface of
the grain is key to this concept in order to cause ablation of the solid fuel. Non-ablative
metal electrodes such as those used in a traditional spark plug do not place the high
temperature plasma of the spark in direct contacts with the fuel surface, but rely on a
21
gaseous medium already consisting of a combustible mixture. In order to cause ablation,
this type of spark gap would need to heat the bulk oxidizer between the spark location
and fuel surface to sucient temperature to decompose the solid fuel. Heating the bulk
gas to solid fuel ablation temperatures would require much larger power and total energy
inputs than are envisioned for the electrostatic arc ignition concept, essentially creating a
traditional arc gas igniter. With the use of ablative electrodes or arcs directed along the
fuel surface, the required input energy may be lowered by several orders of magnitude.
For example, Figure 1.7 shows an arc experiment where conductive fuel samples
were clamped into metal clips and then subject to voltages sucient to cause electrical
breakdown of the atmospheric air gap separating the electrodes. Figure 1.7A shows an
arc where the clips were placed too close, such that the arc formed between the metal
clips rather than between the conductive fuel samples. Figure 1.7B shows and arc formed
between the fuel samples, which in this case are made from paran doped with carbon
black. Note the distinctive blue to purple color, typical of an electrical discharge in air,
which characterizes the arc between the metal clips. In contrast, the arc formed between
the fuel samples shows an orange ame indicating combustion of the gaseous paran
products and surrounding atmospheric oxygen. The application of this observation to
the ignition of the hybrid motor is the fundamental principle which allows very low
energy spark discharge ignition.
22
Fig. 1.7: Experiment Showing Dierences Arcing Between (A) Metal Electrodes and (B)
Conductive Fuel Samples
23
Chapter 2
Test Apparatus Design and Testing Methods
2.1 Overview of Hybrid Arc Igniter development at USU
This study is part of ongoing research at Utah State University to explore electrostatic arc ignition for hybrid rocket motors. Specically, the work presented here formed
the groundwork for the electrostatic arc ignition concept, that has, since the completion of the experiments presented here, been developed into a highly successful ignition
system for 75mm and 98mm experimental hybrid motors at USU. In order to provide
context for the key lessons learned during this work, the following discussion gives an
overview of the USU hybrid direct spark igniter research to date.
A map of prototype development focused on igniter grain development is given in
Figure 2.1.
These development prototypes are grouped by test article and show the
evolution of the grain design and progression of lessons between this project and other
research for electrostatic arc ignition.
Figure 2.1 shows the evolutionary tree of the prototypes developed at Utah State.
In the initial experiments, the arc discharge path was directed through the core of the
oxidizer gas ow. While a number of ignitions were achieved in these tests validating
the possibility of electrostatic arc ignition with a low energy spark, ignition reliability
was low. Signicant diculties also existed in controlling the spark path, with electrode
insulation often fouling from conductive char accumulation, causing the motor to cease
to light after 1-3 ignitions.
The research performed during the study presented here built from the base of
these early proof of concept tests and solved key problems to create reliable ignition.
Key innovations in this work include the development of the surface arcing electrode
conguration and the location of the arc in a low ux zone of the precombustion chamber.
24
As detailed in the results below, running the arc along the gas at the grain surface
rather than through the core oxidizer ow removed the need for electrodes separated by
a clean insulator, removing problems with fouling. The progression of the fuel grain and
electrode congurations tested in this study can again been seen in Figure 2.1.
The igniters in this study achieved reliable ignition with GOX/ABS propellant
combinations using a `strap-on' type external igniter for larger 98mm motors and using
voltage levels in range of thousands of volts to initiate arcing.
since built on these key lessons learned to develop a surface arcing path directly into
the precombustion chamber of larger 75 and 98mm motors at voltages in the range of
200-300 V. This work has led to a highly successful electrostatic arc ignition system for
these motors using both gaseous oxygen as well as liquid N2O combined with ABS and
HTPB fuels [16] [31].
fully instrumented test article utilizing existing USU rocket motor test infrastructure.
A summary of the hardware used in the various motor rings is shown in Table 2.1.
25
Table 2.1: Motor Hardware Used for Each Test
Test Article
Hardware
Iteration
Applicable
Tests
Designations
Microhybrid
MH22
Iteration 1
Test Article
Description
Propellants
Initial proof of
GOX/FDM ABS
concept microhybrid
Electrodes:
motor
HTPB/CB
Microhybrid
MH23, MH24,
GOX/Extruded
Iteration 2
MH26
ABS Electrodes:
with polycarbonate
HTPB/CB
top cap
Microhybrid
MH30
Iteration 3
Fully instrumented
GOX/Extruded
microhybrid motor
ABS Electrodes:
HTPB/CB
Integrated
MH31, MH32,
GOX/Extruded
Microhybrid Igniter
MH33, MH34,
N2O/HTPB motor
ABS Electrodes:
MH35, MH36
NiChrome
be Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) based the past research using ABS as hybrid
rocket motor fuel at USU and because of ease of manufacture. The primary oxidizer for
this study was gaseous oxygen (GOX), though a small number of tests were performed
using gaseous nitrous oxide (GN2O).
26
source was limited to not more than 9 Joules per spark.
spark was not measured, and delivered energy may have depended on a number of factors
including required breakdown voltage between the electrodes and charge state of the stun
gun battery.
During operation, the high voltage source caused an electrical breakdown forming a
momentary spark through the gaseous oxidizer in the grain port between the consumable
electrodes. This action caused vaporization of the electrodes at the point of the spark
and added the energy necessary to begin combustion of the fuel and oxidizer.
Spark
to a cart during testing. Oxidizer ow control was provided through a manual switch
controlling the solenoid valve. Spark control was provided by manual operation of the
commercial stun gun. During testing a two person team operated the spark and valve
control manually under the direction of the test controller.
rough control of the order of spark vs. oxidizer ow timing during start-up.
The ring procedure was to rst purge the chamber with a short GOX ow by
opening the GOX valve.
between subsequent tests.
actuated rst followed by valve actuation as well as vice versa, though typical operation
lead spark before oxidizer ow. Because all actuation was performed manually for the
proof of concept tests timing varied but typical spark lead was on the order of 1 second.
27
This is a Fused Deposition Modeling (hot melt) type printer which extrudes
a thermoplastic ABS wire to form three dimensional geometry. Grains were printed to
nal shape including the initial port inner diameter and two radial holes approximately
0.1 in diameter running from OD to ID and placed 180 degrees apart about
of the
length down the grain as shown in Figure 2.3. The initial grain ID was nominally 0.2
with a circular cross-section. Grain length was 1.2 with a 0.625 OD. The material was
a natural color ABS plastic provided in spooled wire form from MakerBot.
Consumable electrodes were cast in place in the radial electrode holes in the grain.
The electrodes were formed using a mixture of 5% carbon black in HTPB by weight.
This mixture was injected into the radial holes until approximately ush with the ID of
the grain port as shown in Figure 2.3. Wires were fed through insulated pass-throughs
in the top end plate. These ran along the outer diameter of the grain to each consumable
electrode where they were embedded and allowed to cure in place. The arcing path for
this electrode conguration passed radially through the core gas ow of the circular port.
As discussed in detail in the results section, char plating on the internal surfaces
of the grain after the rst burn was observed to cause shorting of the electrodes and
prevent motor ignition during initial testing.
surface path between electrodes was increased by creating a grain separated into two
pieces by a center slit as shown in Figure 2.4. This grain shape did not eliminate surface
arcing and was abandoned after a single test. All subsequent grains used cylindrical port
geometries.
28
Because this test article was again intended primarily to gather qualitative rather than
quantitative data, the feed-line and and instrumentation were identical to the Iteration
1 tests.
Three tests, MH23, MH24, and MH26, were performed with this conguration.
MH23 used the COTS stun gun power supply; however, for the remaining burns a higher
power, variable voltage supply was used.
Jacob's ladder [32] science demo kit.
29
while still electrically insulating the top inner surface of the chamber from a ground
path. The structural bolts that passed through the top plate were insulated with plastic bushings to insure that the combustion chamber head end and injector remained
electrically isolated.
The grains employed in the Iteration 3 test article were machined from commercially
available extruded ABS bar stock. As shown in Figure 2.8, these grains employed an
axial spark gap of 0.3 that intentionally arced along the surface of the grain in the
axial direction.
For these grains, the electrodes were NiCrome wire cast into place
with epoxy and protruding slightly into the grain port. The high voltage side electrode
was connected to the electrically isolated portion of the top plate and the low voltage
electrode was connected to the bottom plate.
plates were routed along channels cut into the OD of the fuel grain that were lled over
with epoxy for insulation.
30
gathering, and spark commands as shown in the sequence event timing in Table 2.3.
Time history plots shown in the results section of this paper contain labels referencing
these sequence events.
In order to control and measure the voltage and current delivered to the microhybrid
system during ignition a precision high voltage DC power supply replaced the Jacobs
Ladder demonstration supply. This programmable supply provided controlled voltage
and current levels on the output as well as direct measurement of delivered voltage
and current. Voltage programming and spark sequence event timing was accomplished
through an analog voltage signal from a NI 6009 basic Digital to Analog converter (DAQ)
which was in turn controlled by the MoNSTeR cart CDAQ. The supply provided up to
14.5 mA at 10,000 V. Supply operation was such that requested DC voltage output would
be supplied by the unit's internal closed loop control until the output current limit was
reached. At the current limit, the supply output a constant current, and voltage became
dependent on the eective resistance of the load applied to the output connections.
a commercially available Cesaroni hobby motor case with a custom designed head-end
cap. This motor was chosen due to previous experience at USU and existing MoNSTeR
car infrastructure to support 98mm motor testing.
Figure 2.12 shows a detailed schematic of the strap-on igniter and its integration
with the injector motor cap. Integration of the top cap and igniter assembly with the
98mm motor is shown in Figure 2.13.
ABS bar stock and utilized an axial surface discharge spark gap based on the Iteration 3
microhybrid motor. An integrated pressure vessel top cap, high voltage pass though, and
Igniter Chamber
Pressure
98mm Chamber
Pressure
Feed Pressure
Ox Massow
Fuel Mass
Consumption
HVPS Voltage
HVPS Current
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
MH22 MH23 MH24 MH26 MH30 MH31 MH32 MH33 MH34 MH35 MH36
31
32
Table 2.3: Sequence Event Timing
Spark On
Igniter Valve Valve
Open Cmd
98mm Feed Valve
Open Cmd
Igniter Valve Close
Cmd
98mm Feed Valve
Close Cmd
Spark o
500
500
500
500
500*
500
500
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1000
1500
1500
1500
1250
1250*
1250
1250
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1000
1500
1500
1500
1250
1250
1250
1250
* MH34G valve command delayed 100 ms, Open: 600, Cmd Close: 1350
injector element was formed from Macor machinable ceramic. High voltage was routed
through the pass through an upper electrode embedded in the cap.
was clamped in place and RTV sealed to an aluminum retaining bracket that provided
structural support and a uid connection for the igniter oxidizer supply line.
This
design allowed the high voltage electrode to be electrically isolated from the surrounding
aluminum 98mm motor cap as well as from the oxidizer feed line. The injector consisted
of a .040 diameter orice machined directly into the ceramic insulator as shown in the
section drawing of Figure 2.12.
Two distinct grain geometry iterations were used in the strap-on igniter testing. The
grain initially consisted of a single constant diameter cylindrical port. However, based on
lessons learned detailed in the results below, a second iteration with a lager diameter precombustion chamber housing the spark gap was designed. A comparison of the igniter
grain geometries is shown in Figure 2.14 and a summary of motors and the corresponding
grain geometry is shown in Table 2.4. Average grain regression was measured between
successive burns by weighing the motor pre- and post-burn and calculating the weight
change.
33
Because of physical constraints imposed by the existing 98mm motor test setup, no
uid connection for igniter chamber pressure measurement was present. Igniter chamber
pressure was estimated indirectly from oxidizer ow rate, grain regression measurement,
throat size, and predicted combustion product composition.
Video
conrmed ignition and helped to estimate the time from initial oxidizer ow to motor
ignition.
All data processing and analysis was performed in Matlab computational software.
Functions were written for data parsing, handling, display, and analysis. Data sets have
been organized and stored using the Matlab `.g' le type to allow for simplied future
reference.
MH24
MH26
Microhybrid
MH33
MH34, MH35,
Igniter B
Igniter C
MH36
MH32
Igniter A
Microhybrid
MH30
MH22, MH23,
Microhybrid
Applicable
Tests
Grain Designation
1.635
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
Grain
Port
Length
0.325
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Precombustion
Chamber
Length
0.375
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Precombustion
Diameter
0.125
0.125
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Initial
Port Spark
Diame- Gap
ter
Electrode conguration
subsequent ignitions
Radially opposed
34
35
estimated based on the time of steady-state oxidizer ow rate.
The igniter power output was calculated as in Equation 2.1 where
stantaneous energy output rate of the igniter,
E out
is the in-
specic heat of the combustion products, T0 is the ame temperature, and Tambient is
the initial temperature of the motor.
(2.1)
The combustion product constant pressure specic heat (Cp) and combustion temperature (T0) were estimated using NASA's industry standard equilibrium chemistry
code, Chemical Equilibrium with Applications (CEA) [34], based on oxidizer to fuel
mixture ratio from measured propellant ow rates and igniter.
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Fig. 2.14: 98mm Igniter Grain Geometries and Electrode Conguration Comparison
43
Chapter 3
Results and Discussion
Results gathered in this study include both quantitative data as well as qualitative
observations. In particular the early proof of concept rings MH22 thorough MH24 were
not intended to gather quantitative data and lacked the instrumentation to do so. These
rings however produced key observations which guided the designs of later motors and
so a discussion of the qualitative results is included here. An overview of the microhybrid
test series is shown in Table 3.1.
MH36
MH35
MH34
MH33
MH32
MH31
MH30
MH26
MH24
MH23
Test
Designation
MH22
Interation 2
Integrated
Igniter
Igniter
Igniter
Integrated
Igniter
Integrated
Integrated
physical volume
Integrated
Igniter
Integrated
test article
Igniter
Interation 3
sequential rings
No ignitions
ignition
Microhybrid
Microhybrid
Interation 2
through char
Results Summary
Microhybrid
Interation 2
Microhybrid
Interation 1
Microhybrid
Test Objective
Test
Hardware
44
45
ow was initiated. Second, because the power supply was not well controlled and was
likely underpowered for the application, successful sparks through the intended gap did
not consistently provide enough energy to cause ignition and was the likely cause for the
initial failures.
Inability to light the motor after multiple successful ignitions was caused by conductive soot build up along surfaces connecting the spark electrode to ground. After the
rst ignition the spark was diverted away from the intended path by conductive char
buildup. This problem is analogous to the fouling of a spark plug in automotive engines
employing spark ignition.
correct temperature and mixture ratio range, conductive carbon deposits will form on
the electrode insulation, creating a path of resistance which is lower than across the intended spark gap. In a hybrid motor, the shutdown transient necessarily passes through
a period of fuel rich combustion as the fuel already vaporizing from the surface mixes
with the decreasing oxidizer ow as the manifold volume downstream of the feed valve
blows down. This forms sooty combustion products which coat the internal surfaces of
the motor with relatively conductive, carbon rich products.
46
rather than sparking across the intended spark gap through the port.
A number of important observations resulted from MH23. First, the eective resistance to dielectric breakdown through the spark gap was seen to increase dramatically
with the introduction of oxidizer ow. The voltage required to form and arc across the
external 1.25 air gap between stun gun electrodes can be approximated using Paschen's
law. This results in a calculated value of nearly 150 kV that did not cause an arc across
the approximately 0.20 intended spark gap internal to the motor, showing that the required output voltage is prohibitively high for designs attempting to arc through the free
stream gas. The solution to lowering the required arcing voltage occurred as a product
of the MH24 test described below.
Second, while the use of insulating material in the motor cap had decreased the
likelihood of unintentional shorting to ground, controlling the spark path between the
electrodes continued to be an issue. This behavior was despite a large increase in length
of the surface path to ground. Signicant eort was invested into devising designs that
would prevent surface arcing and force the spark to travel through the gas in the port.
Ideas included inert gas insulation purges, tortuous surface paths between the electrode
and nearest ground point, and complex electrode tip shapes.
47
to measure the output voltage level did not exist, only relative measurements were taken
based on the position of the output voltage control potentiometer.
It is likely that MH24 suered the same spark path diversion as MH23, however the
success of MH24 can likely be attributed to the more powerful Jacobs Ladder supply
vaporizing the polycarbonate in the cap as the spark ran along the char deposits to the
metal injector. With the increased power supply input the cap became essentially part
of the motor fuel and initiated combustion.
This result prompted a rethinking of the problem. Rather than attempting to avoid
surface arcing, a solution was devised to intentionally arc between electrodes along the
surface of the grain. Electrodes placed axially rather than radially opposed across the
grain port ensured that the path of least resistance was always along the surface. This
design gave the added benet of having fuel in contact with the hot spark along the
entire length of the spark rather than just at the ends, increasing the potential amount
of fuel that was vaporized into the oxidizer ow. Additionally the spark was optimally
placed to add heat directly at the interface between oxidizer and fuel, within the gas
boundary layer, rather than through the oxidizer free stream.
The rst attempt to ignite the motor was successful using the upper
electrodes spanning the fuel grain port at similar voltage settings to those used in MH24.
Connections were then routed to drive the spark between from the upper electrode down
the length of the grain, intentionally arcing through the char layer on the inner surface
of the grain. This design produced successful ignition in every attempt ending with 27
relights of the motor until the fuel grain was consumed. This result validated the surface
arcing concept and thus this concept formed the basis of the motor design for subsequent
tests.
48
As would be expected
with a small amount of erosion of the graphite throat, steady-state cold ow pressure
was slightly higher for ring A at 46 psi compared to 41 psi for ring B.
Figure 3.2a, Figure 3.2b, and Figure 3.2c, plot supply voltage, current, and eective
arc path resistance, respectively. Eective arc path resistance was calculated by R=V/I
in time. The supply was current limited at approximately 14 mA. For MH30A, eective
arc path resistance begins at approximately 65.4 kOhm at spark initiation and decreases
nearly to 28KOh at 0.580s just before oxidizer ow initiation. Resistance then increases
to approximately 230 kOhm during oxidizer cold ow. After ignition, resistance drops
to 32.4 KOhm, decreasing to 8.3 KOhm over the course of the burn. Average Values for
eective arc path resistance are shown in Table 3.3.
Arc path resistance begins higher in MH30B at approximately 62 K Ohm.
Cor-
responding to introduction of oxidizer ow into the chamber at 0.580s, the eective
resistance spikes to 5100 K Ohm and then oscillates between about 1200 and 3100 K
Ohm before falling to 26 K Ohm at the point of ignition around 0.800s. The initial spike
in arc path resistance can be attributed to the increase in dielectric strength of the arc
path with the increase in uid velocity and pressure corresponding to initiating oxidizer
ow. The sharp decline in resistance at ignition shows an increase in the conductivity
49
of the port gasses as would be expected with the establishment of the high temperature
plasma associated with combustion in the port. This arc path resistance behavior was
observed to be typical for all instrumented tests presented in this study and proved consistent enough to be used as an accurate tool for determining the point of ow initiation
and ignition for later motors.
Table 3.2: MH30 Burn Parameters
Parameter
Average Oxidizer Feed Pressure (psia)
Average Oxidizer Mass Flow Rate (g/s)
Average Fuel Mass Consumption Rate (g/s)
Total Fuel Mass Consumption (g)
Average Mixture Ratio
Average Grain Regression Rate (mm/s)
MH30A
MH30B
530.5
5.64
2.48
2.49
2.3
3.1
524.2
5.58
2.57
2.59
2.2
1.8
MH30A
MH30B
Pre-Flow Average
Resistance (kOhm)
Ignition Peak
Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ignition
Average
Resistance (kOhm)
42.2
351.8
227.8
3492.8
16.1
12.0
Power delivered by the high voltage power supply to the MH30 grain for both A
and B burns is shown in Figure 3.2d. Integrating this trace in time for the period the
supply was active yields a total of 4.2J and 0.5J of total energy delivered by the spark
system to the igniter for the A and B rings, respectively. At the point of ignition, the
power being delivered to the igniter was approximately 17 W and 10W, respectively.
50
51
52
Table 3.4: MH30 Sequence Event Timing
Spark On
Igniter Valve Valve
Open Cmd
98mm Feed Valve
Open Cmd
Igniter Valve Close
Cmd
98mm Feed Valve
Close Cmd
Spark o
500
500
500
500
500*
500
500
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1000
1500
1500
1500
1250
1250*
1250
1250
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1000
1500
1500
1500
1250
1250
1250
1250
* MH34G valve command delayed 100 ms, Open: 600, Cmd Close: 1350
shown in Figure 3.3a and Figure 3.3b, respectively. Oxidizer manifold pressure began
to rise at 0.565 s. Steady-state oxidizer ow rates of 7.3, 6.9, and 7.0 g/s were achieved
for rings A, B, and C, respectively.
Plots of spark power supply output voltage, output current, and eective arc path
resistance for all three rings A, B, and C can be seen in Figure 3.4a, Figure 3.4b,
and Figure 3.4c, respectively. The high voltage supply operated in current limited mode
during the entirety of all three rings supplying a constant 14.25 mA and causing output
voltage to be directly proportional to the eective arc path resistance.
Eective arc path resistance began at an average of 179.5 kOhm in ring A prior to
oxidizer ow. When ow was introduced to the chamber eective resistance increased
momentarily to 222 kOhm before falling to approximately 20 kOhm. Initial arc path
resistance decreased with each ring, with B beginning at 26.5 kOhm and C beginning at
14.9 K Ohm. B exhibited two distinct drops in arc path resistance prior to oxidizer ow
at 0.240 and 0.412s. Upon introduction of oxidizer arc path resistance rose in the B ring
to 42.5 kOhm before dropping Resistance data suggests that the motor experienced a
delay of ignition of approximately 0.10 s after beginning oxidizer ow in the B ignition.
53
54
55
Approximate energy output rate from the igniter is shown in Figure 3.3c with
average steady-state values tabulated in Table 3.5. Note that for the start up transient,
oxidizer mass ow rate spikes before falling to a relatively constant steady-state value,
causing a corresponding behavior in the calculation of the igniter energy output rate.
This is due to lling lines down stream of the ow meter and is therefore an over estimate
oxidizer ow rate through the motor. Tabulated values of oxidizer ow rate and igniter
energy output were averaged over the steady-state period only.
Table 3.5: MH32 Burn Parameters
MH32A
MH32B
MH32C
533.32
532.57
528.20
7.35
6.85
7.05
1.46
1.60
5.05
1.52
1.52
4.51
1.02
1.03
6.88
1.18
1.24
0.87
MH32A
MH32B
MH32C
Pre-Flow Average
Resistance (kOhm)
Ignition Peak
Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ignition
Average
Resistance (kOhm)
159.3
17.6
15.9
185.9
41.0
20.1
17.2
11.4
2.5
56
initial igniter fuel grain port size from 0.20 to 0.15 in an attempt to increase the total
available ABS fuel under the constraints of the motor cap dimensions. However, in this
conguration no complete ignitions were achieved.
shows that by decreasing the port size the oxidizer ux in the port increased from 3.65
g/cm^2 to 6.23 g/cm^2 between the rst burn of MH32 and the ignition attempts on
MH33. Time traces of oxidizer mass ow rate can been seen in Figure 3.5, with average
mass ow rate tabulated in Table 12.
The high voltage supply data for supply voltage, supply current, supply power output and eective arc path resistance are shown in Figure 3.6a, Figure 3.6b, Figure 3.6c,
and Figure 3.6d respectively. Eective resistance averages before initiation of oxidizer
ow are shown in Table 13. These do not show notable dierences when compared to
MH32. After initiation of ow the average resistances also appear similar to MH32; however the characteristic decrease in arc path resistance showing ignition does not occur,
with the exception of ring attempts D and E. These tests showed a drop in resistance
late in the oxidizer ow period suggesting possible momentary ignition or the establishment of a `char bridge' along the spark path. Averages of the eective arc path resistance
during were calculated and these data are tabulated in Table 3.8.
The high voltage supply current traces show that the supply ran at a nearly constant
14.5 mA. This is consistent with the maximum current the supply is rated to output
and shows that it was running in current limited mode. Supply voltage output was then
directly proportional to the resistance of the grain surface between the electrodes.
Table 3.7: MH33 Burn Parameters Summary
57
58
59
60
61
Table 3.8: MH33 High Voltage Supply Parameters
MH33B
MH33C
MH33D
MH33E
MH33F
Pre-Flow Average
Resistance (kOhm)
Peak Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ox Flow
Average
Resistance
(kOhm)
35.3
27.6
46.5
72.0
44.8
115.5
47.0
61.3
189.4
239.3
115.5
22.3
17.9
189.4
188.0
supply current, supply power output and eective arc path resistance are shown in
Figure 3.10a, Figure 3.10b, Figure 3.10c, and Figure 3.10d respectively.
of arc path resistance values is shown in Table 18.
A summary
resistance between rings A and B is notable, and suggests that the pre-ring surface
treatment did not represent the electrical properties of a pre-burned grain well.
No signicant ignition delay is evident in any of the rings, though burns E and F
show faster drop in arc path resistance after introduction of oxidizer suggesting a faster
ignition. A summary of ignition times is given in Table 19. Approximate energy output
rate from the igniter is shown in Figure 50.
535.48
6.32
1.34
1.07
4.72
1.65
*Weight data not recorded
MH34B
MH34A
0.79
0.71
6.82
0.89
6.05
524.08
MH34C
NA*
NA*
NA*
NA*
NA*
NA*
5.59
490.43
MH34E
NA*
NA*
1.79
190.67
MH34D
0.70
0.72
6.40
0.89
5.69
487.53
MH34F
0.26
0.29
15.91
0.36
5.70
482.13
MH34G
62
63
64
65
Table 3.10: MH34 High Voltage Supply Parameters
MH34A
MH34B
MH34C
MH34D
MH34E
MH34F
MH34G
Pre-Flow Average
Resistance
(kOhm)
Ignition Peak
Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ignition
Average Resistance
(kOhm)
111.8
72.0
9.2
167.8
32.2
91.6
74.3
277.7
54.8
292.1
182.7
130.7
175.0
173.4
9.0
11.4
21.5
11.8
31.4
38.8
3.2
HVPS voltage, current, and power output and eective arc path resistance are plotted in Figure 3.12a, Figure 3.12b, Figure 3.12c, and Figure 3.12d, respectively. MH36A
arc path resistance trace shows an ignition delay over 500 ms. This delay correlated well
with the delay of the main motor ignition seen in the start-up chamber pressure trace
in Figure 3.11a.
MH36 igniter energy output rate traces are shown in Figure 3.11d. A drop in output
energy is apparent for MH36D as a result of the lower oxidizer mass-ux. This lower
mass-ux is most likely due to inadvertently setting the igniter oxidizer regulator to a
lower setting for the D ring. Because of DACS system constraints, an igniter oxidizer
feed line transducer was not included in these tests and therefor determining the exact
feed line pressure setting is not possible.
margin existed on required vs delivered output energy for the nominal igniter operation.
66
67
68
Ox Feedline
Pressure Rise
Ox Flow Start
Ignition
Steady State
Start
Steady State
End
Ox Feedline
Depressurize
Flow End
0.567
0.573
0.018
0.571
0.568
0.671
0.569
0.284
0.567
0.169
0.565
0.561
0.665
0.604
0.578
0.956
0.586
0.629
0.62
0.732
5.511
0.671
0.746
0.715
0.772
0.788
0.881
6.06
1.434
1.364
1.434
1.365
1.36
1.468
2.322
1.823
2.364
2.043
2.337
2.33
2.436
1.556
1.434
1.571
1.579
1.566
1.572
1.688
502.90
494.44
498.54
502.70
5.67
5.84
5.45
5.53
5.91
1.13
1.15
1.12
1.04
0.80
0.90
0.94
0.91
0.85
0.64
5.03
5.07
4.85
5.30
7.36
1.90
1.26
0.98
0.79
0.55
69
MH35A
MH35B
MH35C
MH35D
MH35E
Pre-Flow
Average
Resistance
(kOhm)
Ignition Peak
Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ignition
Average Resistance
(kOhm)
193.0
20.4
39.8
45.3
14.0
153.6
148.7
145.7
29.8
41.2
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.572
0.573
0.572
0.573
0.567
0.566
0.567
0.566
0.568
0.661
0.656
0.669
0.611
0.611
0.779
0.735
0.826
0.817
0.738
1.363
1.372
1.372
1.378
1.366
2.324
2.322
2.312
2.324
2.32
1.546
1.549
1.553
1.558
1.542
70
MH36A
MH36B
MH36C
MH36D
Pre-Flow Average
Resistance
(kOhm)
Ignition Peak
Resistance
(kOhm)
Post-Ignition
Average
Resistance (kOhm)
29.6
36.4
26.8
27.1
103.2
53.9
40.4
18.1
NA
NA
NA
NA
Ox Flow Start
Ignition
Steady State Start
Steady State End
Ox Feedline Depressurize
Flow End
MH36A
MH36B
MH36C
MH36D
0.568
0.565
0.565
0.568
1.127
0.612
0.604
0.631
1.533
3.281
3.039
1.87
3.542
3.282
3.074
1.894
4.236
4.276
4.268
4.159
1.579
1.534
1.541
1.043
71
Chapter 4
Conclusion
In order to provide a road map to guide future designs, the following discussion
centers on key `lessons learned' during development of the electrostatic arc ignition
concept. These lessons learned were used to develop the follow-on design as presented
by Inkley, Whitmore, and Merkley [16].
Additionally,
such an electrode conguration are eective because the spark is placed to maximize
initiation energy input to the interface between oxidizer and fuel, and to maximize the
quantity of fuel ablated into the oxidizer. High voltage spark along the fuel grain was
72
shown to give highly reliable ignition.
since been successfully incorporated into the igniter for a 75mm grain, achieving reliable
ignition.
the arcing gap was shown to increase with increasing gas velocity. This eect was most
pronounced for free stream arcing congurations, however was important even for surface
arcing concepts. Electrode congurations in which the spark path must pass through
the high velocity gas of the port were shown to increase the required breakdown voltage
passed the point that will likely be prohibitive for implementation aboard ight systems.
Connected with the increase in breakdown voltage, mass ux, or its corollary gas
velocity, was shown to be a limiting factor for the electrostatic arc ignition concepts
tested here. Increasing the oxidizer mass ux at the spark location was shown to increase
ignition latency. At the highest mass ux levels tested here, ignition would not occur.
Eective arc path resistance during arcing as well as breakdown voltage of the spark
gap were shown to decease with successive burns, though the decrease after establishing
a char layer on the grain surface during the rst burn was most dramatic. It is likely
that the arc does not travel continuously through the gas in the presence of conductive
deposits on the grain surface but rather is made up of a string of many smaller arcs
connected by conductive char `islands' on the surface of the grain.
At the conclusion of this study additional research into the optimal initial grain
surface preparation was needed, however, follow-on work performed at USU after the
completion of this study shows promise.
facturing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM), ABS was found to posses a
very unique electrostatic breakdown property. Although bulk ABS posses a very high
electrical impedance, when additively manufactured as a layered surface, local surface
structures resulting as an artifact of the manufacturing process were found to concentrate
73
charges along the deposited material layers when the material is subjected a high-voltage
electrical potential eld. These charge concentrations produced localized electrical arcing between material layers, allowing the material surface to break down at voltages
signicantly lower than would occur with a monolithically fabricated (extruded) fuel
grain article. This follow-on work has shown that surface features associated with FDM
type additively manufactured ABS grains make the pretreatment of the grain surface
performed in this study unnecessary. Additionally, this special property of FDM printed
ABS greatly reduces the required initial voltage to cause electrical breakdown. For the
electrode and grain congurations tested in this study, the HVPS was required to produce sucient voltage (many thousands of volts) to overcome higher initial burn arc
path breakdown resistance while still maintaining sucient current capability to deliver
sucient power once the arc path resistance decreases. The use of FDM printed grains
allows the power supply to operate within more consistent load conditions over a series of ignitions and at much lower nominal operating voltages. Further research into
the underlying principles governing the unique electrical breakdown properties of FDM
printed ABS will allow for grain designs optimized for direct electrostatic arc ignition.
was shown to be limited only by the quantity of fuel available in the igniter.
In addition, a large body of data was collected characterizing the required power,
voltage, and total energy input for ignition. Electrostatic arc ignition for hybrid motors
was shown to be feasible in the low energy input range of 20- to 50 W using total energy
of less than 10J. In a small form factor this power input was amplied to a total igniter
74
power output of approximately 50,000 W.
hybrid motors continue to require reactants distant from the main propellants. In many
cases this may invalidate the safety advantages which motivate the use of hybrid motors by introducing disadvantages associated with traditional liquid or solid propellant
systems. Electrostatic arc ignition is an enabling technology, allowing for hybrid motors
with restart capability without the need to carry reactive components distinct from the
main propellants. Additionally, the direct ignition microhybrid motor concept may hold
promise as a standalone miniature propulsion system for small satellites.
75
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