180 Years of Atmospheric CO2 Gas Analysis by Chemical Methods

EE 18-2_Beck
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180 YEARS OF ATMOSPHERIC CO2 GAS ANALYSIS

BY CHEMICAL METHODS
by
Ernst-Georg Beck
Reprinted from
ENERGY &
ENVIRONMENT
VOLUME 18 No. 2 2007
MULTI-SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO. LTD.

5 Wates Way, Brentwood, Essex CM15 9TB, United Kingdom
05_Ernest-Georg Beck.qxd
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180 YEARS OF ATMOSPHERIC CO2 GAS ANALYSIS

BY CHEMICAL METHODS
Ernst-Georg Beck
Dipl. Biol. Ernst-Georg Beck, 31 Rue du Giessen, F-68600 Biesheim, France
E-mail: [email protected]; 2/2007
ABSTRACT
More than 90,000 accurate chemical analyses of CO2 in air since 1812 are
summarised. The historic chemical data reveal that changes in CO2 track changes in
temperature, and therefore climate in contrast to the simple, monotonically increasing
CO2 trend depicted in the post-1990 literature on climate-change. Since 1812, the CO2
concentration in northern hemispheric air has fluctuated exhibiting three high level
maxima around 1825, 1857 and 1942 the latter showing more than 400 ppm.
Between 1857 and 1958, the Pettenkofer process was the standard analytical
method for determining atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and usually achieved an
accuracy better than 3%. These determinations were made by several scientists of
Nobel Prize level distinction. Following Callendar (1938), modern climatologists
have generally ignored the historic determinations of CO2, despite the techniques
being standard text book procedures in several different disciplines. Chemical
methods were discredited as unreliable choosing only few which fit the
assumption of a climate CO2 connection.
THE CURRENT VIEWS ON CO2 AND CLIMATE CHANGE

The causes, development and future projection of climate change are summarized in
the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a United
Nations body that is responsible for advising governments. The four consecutive
Assessment Reports of the IPCC - issued in 1992, 1995, 2001 and 2007 follow
closely the views of three influential scientists, Arrhenius, Callendar and Keeling on
the importance of CO2 as a control on climate change. Quote from Keeling (1978,
p. 1 [1]).
The idea that CO2 from fossil fuel burning might accumulate in air and cause a
warming of the lower atmosphere was speculated upon as early as the latter half of
the nineteenth century (Arrhenius, 1903). At that time the use of fossil fuel was too
slight to expect a rise in atmospheric CO2 to be detectable. The idea was again
convincingly expressed by Callendar (1938, 1940) but still without solid evidence of a
rise in CO2.
Following this line of argument, the IPCCs Third Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001,
chapter 3.1 [2]) contained the further explanation which makes it entirely explicit that
direct measurements can only be relied on post 1957 and prior direct measurements
can be disregarded in favour of indirect measurements made of air trapped in ice:
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Energy & Environment Vol. 18, No. 2, 2007

Atmospheric CO2 over industrial Countries
380
Proxy data from ice cores Antarctica
370
Measurement
CO2-concentration (ppm)
360
350
340
330
320
310
Mauna Loa
South Pole
+9 stations
Proxy data Law Dome,

Antarctica 1995/96
300
290
280
270
Keeling et al. 2001

1740 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
year
Seasonal Variation
400
photosynthesis
CO2 concentration (ppm)
CO2 concentration (ppm)
400
respiration
winter
summer
Diurnal Variation
night
day
night
respiration photysynthesis respiration
winter
Figure 1: Atmospheric CO2 over industrial countries (after Keeling [2]); natural
CO2 variations.
The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen from close to 280 parts
per million (ppm) in 1800, at first slowly and then progressively faster to a value
of 367 ppm in 1999, echoing the increasing pace of global agricultural and industrial
development. This is known from numerous, well-replicated measurements of the
composition of air bubbles trapped in Antarctic ice. Atmospheric CO2 concentration
have been measured directly with high precision since 1957; these measurements
agree with ice-core measurements, and show a continuation of the increasing trend up
to the present.
In 1958 C.D. Keeling, University of California, San Diego, USA, introduced a new
technique for the accurate measurement of atmospheric CO2. Keeling used cryogenic
condensation of air samples followed by NDIR spectroscopic analysis against a
reference gas, using manometric calibration. Subsequently, this technique was adopted
as an analytical standard for CO2 determination throughout the world, including by the
World Meteorological Association (WMO) [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
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180 Years of Atmospheric CO2 Gas Analysis by Chemical Methods
261
Table 1: Bibliographies and citation of papers

Cited authors and
papers with data
Year
Authors
Total 19thc.
1900
1912
1940
1951
1952
1956
1958
1958
1986
1986
2006
Letts and Blake [14]

Benedict [15]
Callendar [16]
Effenberger [17]
Stepanova [18]
Slocum [19]
Callendar [20]
Bray [21]
Fraser [22]
Keeling [23]
Beck [this study]
252
137
13
56
229
33
30
49
6
18
156
1see
252
137
7
32
130
22
18
20
6
18
82
20thc.
6
24
99
11
12
19
74
Notes
Only 19th century (+)
+; focus on O2-determination
Cited Letts&Blake and Benedict
Cited Duerst1, Misra1 and Kreutz1
Citation as Effenberger
Cited Duerst and Kreutz
No citing of Duerst, Kreutz and Misra
Cited most important through the centuries
+, same as Callendar
+, same as Callendar;
Only chemical determination until 1961
references
CO2 measuring stations are distributed across the globe. Most, however, are located
in coastal or island areas in order to obtain air without contamination from vegetation,
organisms and industrial activity, i.e. to establish the so-called background level of
CO2. In considering such measurements, account should be taken of the established
fact that land-derived air flowing seawards looses about 10 ppm of its carbon dioxide
to dissolution in the oceans, and even more in colder waters (Henrys Law).
THE ESTABLISHED CRITICAL VIEW ON HISTORICAL CO2 DATA
A major issue regarding the IPCC approach to linking climate and CO2 is the
assumption that prior to the industrial revolution the level of atmospheric CO2 was in
an equilibrium state of about 280 ppm, around which little or no variation occurred.
This presumption of constancy and equilibrium is based upon a critical review of the
older literature on atmospheric CO2 content by Callendar and Keeling. (See Table 1).
Between 1800 and 1961, more than 380 technical papers that were published on air
gas analysis contained data on atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Callendar [16, 20, 24]
Keeling and the IPCC did not provide a thorough evaluation of these papers and the
standard chemical methods that they deployed. Rather, they discredited these techniques
and data, and rejected most as faulty or highly inaccurate [20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27].
Though they acknowledge the concept of an unpolluted background level for
CO2, these authors only examined about 10% of the available literature, asserting from
that that only 1% of all previous data could be viewed as accurate (Mntz [28, 29, 30],
Reiset [31], Buch [32]).
THE CHALLENGE OF THE MAIN STREAM VIEW
ON THE HISTORICAL DATA
During my own review of the literature, I observed that the evaluation of Reisets and
Mntzs work by Callendar and Keeling was erroneous. This made me investigate
262
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carefully the criteria that were used by these and other authors to accept or to reject
such historical data.
The data accepted by Callendar and Keeling had to be sufficiently low to be
consistent with the greenhouse hypothesis of climate change controlled by rising CO2
emissions from fossil fuel burning. Callendar rejected nearly all data before 1870
because of relatively crude instrumentation and reported only twelve suitable data
sets in 20th century as known to him [20] out of 99 made available by Stepanova 1952
[18]. The intent of these authors was to identify CO2 determinations that were made
using pure unpolluted air, in order to assess the true background level of CO2.
Callendar set out the criteria that he used to judge whether older determinations were
allowable in his 1958 paper [20] which presents only data that fell within 10% of a
longer yearly average estimated for the region, and also rejected all measurements,
however accurate, that were measurements intended for special purposes, such as
biological, soil air, atmospheric pollution.
Next I cite the conclusion of the analysis of 19th centuries CO2 data by Keeling back
in 1986 (From/Keeling 1986, pp. 101103 [23]):
Our original goal was to find, if possible, a seasonal cycle in the nineteenth century
atmospheric CO2 data in agreement with modern observations by applying the air
mass criteria of Callendar (1940a) to screen out contaminated data. This goal we have
demonstrated to be unachievable.
We find, after screening out suspicious data on the basis of air mass, that none of
the five data sets of Callendar show the seasonal cycle which Callendar found in
combination.
Brown and Escombe (1905b) investigated atmospheric carbon dioxide only as a slide
line to botanical studies. They provide minimal information on methodology and weather
conditions. A few of their data seem abnormally low. Their sampling was sporadic over
a four year period at a site poorly chosen to study CO2, albeit convenient to their
botanical laboratory. Their results are of interest mainly because they used an apparatus
similar to Reisets which had been carefully tested by an independent method.
In conclusion, the measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide carried out by
Reiset (1882) from 1872 to 1880 on the coast of northern France appear to be valid.
They indicate a mean annual concentration, with respect to dry air, of 292.4 1.2 ppm.
Comparisons with other possibly valid contemporary data suggest that these data are
not biased by more than 10 ppm. It is thus unlikely that the CO2 concentration was less
than 282 ppm in the late nineteenth century, and was probably close to 292 ppm.
There was no verification or falsification of results and methods used by other
authors, especially those published in the 20th century (e.g. Lundegardh [35, 36],
Duerst [37], Kreutz[38], Misra [39], Scholander [40]), with exception of Buch 1935
[32], lying on the fuel line (Callendar 1958 [20]).
According to Callendar, Keeling and the IPCC, CO2 variations to be observed in air
were due diurnal, and seasonal cycles, or to glacial/ interglacial fluctuations. Natural
concentrations are assumed to have been in equilibrium until mankind disturbed the
natural situation. In this way, any long term observations that might display decadal to
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263
340
330
CO2 conc (ppm)
320
310
300
290
Reiset
280
270
1700
1750
1800
1850
Year
1900
1950
2000
Figure 2: The Reiset data fit in CO2-ice core reconstruction by Neftel et al. (1985)
[33] (From & Keeling Fig. 10, p. 102, [23]).
centennial natural variations in atmospheric CO2 are ruled out a priori by Callendar
and Keeling.
As I discuss further below, these criticisms by Callendar and Keeling, and the
selective way in which they discarded previous data, are not able to be justified. Their
most egregious error was perhaps the dismissal of all data which showed variations from
their presupposed average. That said, it is of course the case that some of the older data
has to be viewed as less reliable for technical, analytical reasons, as also indicated below.
CRITICAL SURVEY OF THE CHEMICAL METHODS APPLIED
IN THE PAST
In this paper, I have assembled a 138 year-long record of yearly atmospheric CO2
levels, extracted from more then 180 technical papers published between 1812 and
1961. The latter year marked the end of the era of classical chemical analysis.
The compilation of data was selective. Nearly all of the air sample measurements that I
used were originally obtained from rural areas or the periphery of towns, under comparable
conditions of a height of approx. 2 m above ground at a site distant from potential industrial
or military contamination. Evaluation of the chemical methods used reveals systematically
high accuracy, with a maximum 3% error reducing to 1% for the data of Henrik
Lundegardh (192026), a pioneer of plant physiology and ecology [34, 35, 36].
Three popular techniques have evolved since 1812 for measuring the CO2 content
of air (gravimetric, titrimetric, volumetric or manometric) The Pettenkofer titrimetric
method being simple, fast and well understood - was used as the optimal standard
method for more than 100 years after 1857 [45, 46, 47, 48]. Different scientists calibrated
their methods against each other, and by sampling gas with known CO2 content. Details
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Figure 3: Important historic gas analysers used by hundreds of scientists

up to 1961 [26, 42, 43, 44].
of the measurement parameters, local modalities and measuring errors can be extracted
from the available literature.
The Pettenkofer process and all its variants included the absorption of a known
volume of air in alkaline solution (Ba(OH)2, KOH, NaOH) and titration with acid
(oxalic, sulphuric, hydrochloric acid) of the produced carbonate. Basic accuracy is +/
0,0006 vol% [34, 45 ] optimized to +/0,0003 vol% by Lundegardh [35], who provides
comparative measurements with the other techniques (see table 3).
The volumetric apparatuses used before Haldane [70] and Benedict/Sonden/Petterson
(e.g. 1900; [15, 44]), including gas analysers used by the French authors Regnault,
Mntz, Tissander and earlier authors were open systems which lacked efficient control
of reaction temperature (see Schuftan 1933, [43,]). So their data were less reliable. Most
French authors such as Mntz, Tissander and Reiset (Pettenkofer process) used sulphuric
acid for drying air (or releasing CO2, Mntz [28, 29, 30]) before determination of CO2
content. Because of the absorption of a considerable fraction of CO2 in the sulphuric
acid, their values are too low (Bunsen absorption coefficient H2SO4 at 25C = 0,96; H2O
at 25C = 0,759; [72]). These systematic errors were known since 1848, Hlasiwetz [73]
1856 and Spring [57] 1885 determined these absorption losses to 710% or about 20
ppm.
Neither Callendar or Keeling nor the IPCC commented on these systematic errors
resulting in too low values. In fact, Reiset and Mntz were singled out for special
praise by Keeling and IPCC as the source of the best available data of that time. [22,
23, 25, 26, 27, 74] However, because of the deficiencies results determined using these
methods have not been incorporated in the present study.
Discounting such unsatisfactory data, in every decade since 1857 we can still
identify several measurement series that contain hundreds of precise, continuous data.
Measurements made prior to 1857 (introduction of Pettenkofer method, 3% accuracy),
mostly by French authors (Boussingault, [14]; Brunner [14]; Regnault [ 14], [75]), show
systematic errors due to long connections (absorption in caoutchouc), H2SO4 for drying
air and missing temperature management. There being no calibration against Pettenkofer
or modern volumetric/manometric equipment, so I cannot quantify accurately the range
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Table 2: Series of CO2 measurements since 1855 lasting more than a year using
the titrimetric Pettenkofer process
Year
1 Since 1855
2 1856 (6 month)1
3 18631864
4 1864/65
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18681871
18721873
1873
1874875
18741875
18791880
1883
18861887
18891891
18971898
18981901
19171918
19201926
18 1928
19 19321935
20
21
22
23
24
25
1v.
19361939
19411943
1950
1954
1957
19551960
Author
Locality
v. Pettenkofer [46]
v. Gilm1 [50]
Schulze2 [51]
Smith [52]
Munich (D)
Innsbruck1 (AUS)
Rostock, (D)
London, Manchester,
Scotland (GB)
Schulze2 [51]
Rostock, (D)
Reiset [53]
Dieppe, France (Northsea) (F)
Truchot [54]
Clermont Ferrand (F)
Farsky2 [55]
Tabor, Bhmen, (Cz)
Hsselbarth2 [56]
Dahme (D)
Reiset [31]
Dieppe (F)
Spring [57]2
Liege (B)
Uffelmann [58]
Rostock (D)
Petermann [59]
Gembloux (B)
Letts&Blake [14]
near Belfast (IRL)
Brown& Escombe [60] Kew Garden England (GB)
A. Krogh [61, 62]
Kopenhagen (DK)
Lundegardh [35]
in southern Sweden
(Kattegat) (S)
Krogh/Rehberg [62]
Kopenhagen (DK)
Buch [32]
Northern atlantic ocean/
Finland (FIN)
Duerst [37]
at Bern (Switzerland) (CH)
Misra [39]
Poona, India (IND)
Effenberger [17]
Hamburg (D)
Chapman et al. [63]
Ames (IOWA, USA)
Steinhauser [64]
Vienna (AUS)
Fonselius et al. [65]
Scandinavia
Bischof [66]
Amount of
determinations
Many
19
426
246
1600
92
60
295
347
118
266
420
525
64
92
Many
>3000
Many
176
>1000
> 250
>40
>100
>500
>3400
Gilm: similar process as Pettenkofer, first calibrated.

variant of Pettenkofer process, sampling by tube through opening in window.
2identical
of error. Well known absorption errors are in the order of 30 ppm. Amongst these authors,
only de Saussure (1826-1830; [76]) measured a realistic image of the seasonal CO2 cycle.
The highest density of data was achieved by Wilhelm Kreutz at the state-of-the-art
meteorological station in Giessen (Germany) [38], using a closed, volumetric, automatic
system designed by Paul Schuftan, the father of modern gas chromatography; [43, 78].
Kreutz compiled more than 64,000 single measurements using this equipment in an
18 month period during 19391941.
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266
A
0
B
C
II
B
T
t
J
Ba (OH)2
C
t
I
B
F
C
Figure 4: Part of equipment used by Reiset at Dieppe (F) 187280 with sulfuric acid
for drying air (31). I = U-tube with sulfuric acid.
Table 3: Volumetric and manometric measurements
1
2
1875 (Mrz)
18801912
3
4
19101912
19201930
Tissander [67]
Mntz & Aubin
[28, 29, 30]
Benedict [15]
Rheinau [68]
5
6
7
8
19251970
19121936
19391941
19461970
Van Slyke [69]

Haldane [70]
Kreutz [38]
Scholander [40, 41]
Paris, in balloon, volumetric

Near Paris, Pyrenees, Carribean etc.
(F) volumetric
Washington (USA), volumetric
Locations in Germany, Davos,
Switzerland (volumetric)
Worldwide, manometric
UK, volumetric
Germany, volumetric
Worldwide, volumetric
<10
81+
>264
>500
many
1500
64,000
>1000
The longest single time series was determined in Paris Montsouris laboratory, and
comprises 12,000 measurements over the 30 years from 1876 until 1910 [79].
DIURNAL MONTHLY AND SEASONAL VARIATION
I investigated short-term variations in CO2 first, stimulated by Callendar and Keelings
assertion that the historical data are unreliable because they reflect measurements
made within an unresolved diurnal or seasonal cycle. Certainly, some observations
deserve such criticism. But many others do not, as shown below.
Equipped with the best available hardware at that time [80, 81] Kreutz installed 4
places for parallel data acquisition for the measurement series beween 1939 to 1941,
measuring all weather parameters including radiation, temperature, pressure, humidity,
wind etc. Over an 18 month period he analysed more than 64,000 single CO2 values at
a rate of 120 samples per day, using a gas analyser designed by Riedel & Co. in Essen,
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CO2 19391941, Kreutz, at Giessen (D)
CO2 (ppm)
Reihe1
Average: polynomic 6th order
580
550
520
490
460
430
400
370
340
310
280
250
Temperature IPCC
1920 1940
1960
05
3.
.0
41 .03
2
.0
41 .04
1
.0
41 .05
2
.1
40 .05
1
.1
40 .06
0
.1
40 .06
9
.0
40 .07
8
.0
40 .08
7
.0
40 .08
6
.0
40 .09
5
.0
40 .09
4
.0
40 .10
3
.0
40 .09
2
.0
40 .10
1
.0
40 .11
2
.1
39 .11
1
.1
39 .12
0
.1
39 .12
9
.0
39 .13
8
.0
39 .14
7
.0
39
Days (decades)
Figure 5: CO2 concentrations in 2 m sampling height (0; 0,5;14 m available) at the

meteorological station near Gieen (Germany) 1939/41 [38] also showing monthly
cycling. Sampling and analysing time per value: some minutes; gas analyser in room
with constant temperature; location: several 100 m far from buildings in periphery of
the city of Giessen, well ventilated; average: 438.5 ppm; very cold winter 1939/40;
summer 1940: probably regional influence detectable.
0.006
%
0.005
CO2 2 m height
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
W
Forenoon
Afternoon
E
Evening
Daily average
Figure 6: CO2 and wind direction at Giessen weather station 19391941 ([38], p. 112),
(part of detailed discussion of weather and local parameters in context with measured
CO2, there Fig. 10), showing influence of nearby city in southwest direction up to an
average of 20 ppm. (captions translated from German).
Germany [77] and the famous expert in gas analysis, Paul Schuftan (Linde & Co (D),
later BOC UK) [43, 71, 78]. In his paper [38] Kreutzs results delineate well both the
seasonal cycle and weather events around the city of Giessen, and confirm strikingly
the persistence of CO2 levels above 400 ppm over most of a period of 2 years.
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CO2 18631864 Schulze, at Rostock (D)
CO2 Pettenkofer
Average: polynomic 6th order
410
400
390
CO2 (ppm)
380
370
360
350
Temperature IPCC
340
330
320
310
1860
300
1880
65
65
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
63
63
63
63
.0
.0
.1
.1
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.1
.1
.0
2.
1.
2.
1.
0.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
2.
1.
0.
9.
17
18
19
19
20
20
21
22
22
23
23
24
23
24
25
25
26
26
Days (decades)
Figure 7: CO2 concentration at museum of Rostock, Baltic Sea (Germany) 1863/64

[51], 1465 samples, 4 m height in western direction; average: 364 ppm; again
showing monthly cycling. Discussion of method, location and influence of weather.
The overall average CO2 level for the 25,000 values plotted from Giessen is 438.5
ppm. This figure needs to be adjusted downwards to take account of anthropogenic
sources of CO2 from nearby city, an influence that has been estimated as lying between
10 and 70 ppm (average 30 ppm) by different authors (61, 57, 82, 83).
Even after making this adjustment, the Giessen results strongly contradict modern
(IPCC) estimates of carbon dioxide levels during the 1940s. These results of Kreutz
were not cited or evaluated by Callendar and Keeling. Others, who have mentioned the
work, such as Slocum [19], Effenberger [17] and Bray [21], invariably give faulty
citation of the details.
Out of dozens of other high quality data sets since 1857 that are available for
analysis, I cite three, in order to show the precision exhibited by historical gas
analysis in detecting seasonal and diurnal variation of CO2 levels. The three studies
are by F. Schulze (186371) [51] at Rostock (D), W. Spring 1883 [57] at Liege (B)
and P. Haesselbarth at Dahme (Prussia, 1876) [56], and are plotted in Figs. 79.
The conditions of data acquisition, description of methods, prevailing weather
conditions and information about the precise location can be gathered from the
appropriate papers. In general, however, these three sets of observations share high
levels of CO2 as high as 350 ppm or more at a time when data interpreted from ice
cores indicates a level of around 290 ppm.
W. Spring, chemist at the university of Liege (Belgium) analysed during 188385
266 air samples resulting in an average of 355 ppm. He carefully tested and calibrated
his equipment, and quantified local CO2 sources (soil and industries) and systematic
CO2 losses by drying air in sulfuric acid, further discussing influence of weather and
the results of other scientists.
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Diurnal CO2, 24th - 25th July 1876, Dahme, Hsselbarth

CO2 (ppm), Pettenkofer variant, 34 L air, every 3 h., 1m table in garden, no wind, no clouds
440
410
CO2 (ppm)
380
350
320
290
260
230
200
4:48
9:36
14:24
19:12
0:00
4:48
9:36
14:24
Time
Figure 8: Diurnal variation of atmospheric CO2 on 24th/25th July 1876, in periphery

of the small rural town of Dahme (Prussia, Germany, center of agricultural activities)
[56] measured in the stations garden showing respiration of plants and lacking
photosynthesis at night; sampling and analysing time: 3 hours; average: 322 ppm.
More historic measurement series include evaluation of methods and locations,

are being prepared for publication. Here I also point out a remarkable observation,
which also can be made from the recent Mauna Loa data and others, which passed so
far apparently not acknowledged, that superposed on all seasonal variations, is another
monthly variation with a wave length of 2830 days.
COMPILATION OF THE HISTORICAL DATA
In this section I present the analytical data over a 150 year period for air gas analysis
determined by classical chemical techniques, as published in 138 scientific papers. The
data presented have been retained unmodified. They mostly comprise measurements
made on samples collected at a height of approx. 2 (or some) m above ground, from
stations located throughout the northern hemisphere, from Alaska, through Europe, to
Pune (India).
Firstly a raw picture is presented in figure 11 over the period 18121961 with 11 years
smoothing (11 year moving average filter [85]):
Figure 12 shows a comparison between the eleven years-averaged CO2 curve and
the IPCC (2001) annually averaged temperature record between 1860 and 2000. Shortterm fluctuations in CO2 are suppressed by the filtering, but at the broad level there is
a close match between the 1942s peaks for CO2 and temperature.
Subsequent figure 13 presents a raw picture out of 41 yearly averages over the
period 19201961 compared to ice core records by Neftel et al. [33].
Notice that the peak CO2 content and peak temperature coincide in 1942, an
observation which will be given more attention below. The overall validity of the pattern
of CO2 fluctuations is supported by the following considerations.
1860
1880
Days (decades)
83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84
.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0
2. 2. 2. 3. 3. 3. 4. 4. 4. 5. 5. 5. 6. 6. 6. 7. 7. 7. 8. 8. 8. 9. 9. 9. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1. 2. 2. 2. 1. 1. 1. 2. 2. 2. 3. 3.
03 13 23 05 15 25 04 14 24 04 14 24 03 13 23 03 13 23 02 12 22 01 11 21 01 11 21 31 10 20 30 10 20 30 09 19 29 08 18 28 09 19
Figure 9: Decade average of atmospheric CO2 in 1883/84 at Liege, Belgium (Spring et al., [57]), showing seasonal
variation and monthly cycling; average: 355 ppm. Spring had carefully tested and calibrated his equipment, and
quantified local pollution and systematic CO2 losses by drying air in sulfuric acid.
280
290
300
temperature IPCC
Average polynom. 6th order
270
310
Pettenkofer, 5m height, laboratory; average 266 samples: 335 ppm; variation 70 ppm
3:37 pm
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
CO2 1883 Liege (B) Spring & Roland.
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CO2-wind direction 1883 Liege (B)

Maximum southwest industry center basin Seraing
North
North-Northeast
380
Northeast
360
North-Northwest
Northwest
340
Northeast-East
320
East
300
East-Southeast
West
West-Southwest
Southwest
Southeast
South-Southeast
West-Northwest
South
South-Southwest
Figure 10: Atmospheric CO2 (ppm) in 1883/84 at Liege, Belgium (Spring et al.,
[57]) and wind direction showing southwestern influence of industrial activities.
Broad geographic coverage, with measuring stations spread throughout middleand northern Europe, USA, Atlantic ocean, Alaska, India and Antarctica.
High data density: the 41 CO2 series used include about 70,000 discrete
measurements, with the highest data density in the peak area between 1939 and
1942.
The application of different accurate standard measuring systems with high
accuracy of 23%, as designed by Krogh, Schuftan, van Slyke, Haldane,
Scholander.
Measurements were made by several different, highly competent experts:
Buch [32], Haldane [70], Duerst [37], Kreutz [38], Scholander [40], Lockhart [84].
Verified suitable locations of the measuring stations: no contamination is known
from human or natural sources, e.g. conurbation, war, soil degassing, volcanic
emissions.
The Second World War cannot be responsible for the high values, because a rise in
CO2 is exhibited from 1925 and culminating in 1942, and the second part of the
maxima was recorded at places with no war activity (Alaska, India].
If the same CO2 data are plotted as a 5-year average (Fig. 14) then the shorter-term CO2
fluctuations reassert themselves. This plot shows that all 8 temperature maxima during
the 100 years from 1850 to 1950 correspond with CO2-maxima. Plotted for comparison,
note that the ice core results do not contain decadal frequency fluctuations. The
inreliability of ice core reconstructions was indicated by Jaworowski [86].
CO2 18121961 Northern hemisphere, chemical - data coverage
Years
Figure 11: Local CO2 concentration for the northern hemisphere, determined through chemical analysis between
1812 and 1861. Data plotted as an 11 year average. Data coverage and important scientists indicated in dark
grey/black. The curve delineates three major maxima in CO2 content, though the one situated around 1820 must be
treated as provisional only. Data series used: time window 18571873: 13 yearly averages, 83 until 1927 and up to
1961 41 data records (eleven interpolated).
* See text
272
Amount of measuring series
3:37 pm
11 years average
Moyer Duerst Haldane

470
Krogh
Farsky Hsselbarth Uffelmann
Buch Kreutz Scholander
Letts & Blake
450
430
Misra Steinhauser
Spring
Montsouris
Lundegardh
vGilm* Schultze
410
Smith Reiset Mntz Petermann Benedict
390
Hempel Reiset
370
Brown & Escombe
350
330
310
290
41
13
83
270
250
1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Coverage of measuring period 18571961 with date sampling more than 1 year
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CO2 (ppm)
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Sunspot cycle
Departures in temperature in C (from the 1961 - 1990 average)
IPCC temperature
CO2 systematic accuracy: 3%
Sunspot cycle
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
Figure 12: Global temperature (stations, IPCC 2001), from 1860 atmospheric CO2 by chemical analysis, sunspot
cycles (NGDC 2006, [96]).
250
1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Years
270
290
310
330
CO2 chemical
IPCC Temperature C
3:37 pm
350
370
390
410
430
540
470
CO2 18121961 (NH) Temperature (world) IPCC 2001

Chemical, 11 years smoothing
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CO2 (ppm)
Page 273

273
1920
1925
1930
1935
1940
Year
1945
1950
Scholander
1955
1920
1960
1940
1965
1960
Figure 13: The northern hemisphere 1942 CO2 maximum, delineated by historical chemical analysis. Inclusive ice
core data by Neftel et al. [33] and IPCC temperature for orientation.
290
1915
270
290
310
330
Haldane
Van slyke
Misra
Temperature IPCC
274
350
Lundgardh
Kreutz
Duerst
CO2 chemical
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370
390
410
430
450
470
490
Ice core Antarctica
CO2 19201961, Northern hemisphere, chemical
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CO2 (ppm)
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1810
1820
Tambora
CO2 chemical
1830
1840
1850
1860
Temp. Hansen 2005
1880
3
1890
4
1900
Year (5 years average)
1870
Krakatoa
Temp. HadCRUT3 2006
1910
5
1920
1930
1940
CO2 ice core Antarctica
1950
1960
rel. temperature C
1970
Angell NH 1985
3:37 pm
Figure 14: Measured average annual temperature in the northern hemisphere since 1850 (Jones, 88; Hansen, 89;
Angell since 1810 to 1850, [90]), compared with 5 year-averaged atmospheric CO2 levels (chemical data), 5 years
offset corrected, temperature data (Hansen/HadCRUT3) led CO2 data). Volcanic eruptions in Tambora 1815 and
Krakatoa 1883 included. CO2 peaks 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 within 3% error range.
500
490
480
470
460
450
440
430
420
410
400
390
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
1800
CO2 18121961 (NH), chemical - Temperature (NH)
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CO2 (ppm)
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275
276
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The close relationship between temperature change and CO2 level exhibited by these
results is consistent with a cause-effect relationship, but does not of itself indicate which
of the two parameters is the cause and which the effect. The greenhouse hypothesis of
IPCC argues for CO2 being the cause (through radiative feedback) of the temperature
rise. My results are equally if not more consistent with temperature being the forcing that
controls the level of CO2 in the atmospheric system. In support of this causality, ice-core
data consistently shows that over climatic time scales, changes in temperature precede
their parallel changes in carbon dioxide by several hundred to more than a thousand
years [91].
Most of the historical chemical measurements were accomplished on samples
collected from the boreal regions of the northern hemisphere. Here, the diurnal and
seasonal variation in atmospheric CO2 displays a much higher amplitude than is the
case for oceanic areas, where smoothing influences result in a diminution of CO2 levels
by 10 ppm or more. An imbalance of photosynthesis, respiration and soil respiration in
and near to forests may lead to periodic emissions of large quantities of CO2 [83, 92].
Substantial differences in amplitude of parts of the carbon cycle is well known in the
northern hemisphere (e.g. methane [93]; Luxembourg, [94]). Such effects may explain
the various smaller fluctuations in CO2 content through the historical chemical record,
which are not imaged by ice cores or at ocean stations.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
During the late 20th century, the hypothesis that the ongoing rise of CO2 concentration
in the atmosphere is a result of fossil fuel burning became the dominant paradigm. To
establish this paradigm, and increasingly since then, historical measurements indicating
fluctuating CO2 levels between 300 and more than 400 ppmv have been neglected.
A re-evaluation has been undertaken of the historical literature on atmospheric CO2
levels since the introduction of reliable chemical measuring techniques in the early to
middle 19th century. More than 90,000 individual determinations of CO2 levels are
reported between 1812 and 1961. The great majority of these determinations were
made by skilled investigators using well established laboratory analytical techniques.
Data from 138 sources and locations have been combined to produce a yearly average
atmospheric CO2 curve for the northern hemisphere.
The historical data that I have considered to be reliable can, of course, be
challenged on the grounds that they represent local measurements only, and are
therefore not representative on a global scale. Strong evidence that this is not the case,
and that the composite historical CO2 curve is globally meaningful, comes from the
correspondence between the curve and other global phenomena, including both
sunspot cycles and the moon phases, the latter presented here probably first time in
literature and the average global temperature statistic. Furthermore, that the historical
data are reliable in themselves is supported by the credible seasonal, monthly and daily
variations that they display, the pattern of which corresponds with modern
measurements. It is indeed surprising that the quality and accuracy of these historic
CO2 measurements has escaped the attention of other researchers.
How to interpret the monthly variation of CO2 (see Fig. 5, 7, 9 and modern
measurements e.g. Mauna Loa), which indicates a coincidence with the lunar phases,
is another question to be dealt within a paper in preparation.
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Modern greenhouse hypothesis is based on the work of G.S. Callendar and C.D.
Keeling, following S. Arrhenius, as latterly popularized by the IPCC. Review of
available literature raise the question if these authors have systematically discarded a
large number of valid technical papers and older atmospheric CO2 determinations
because they did not fit their hypothesis? Obviously they use only a few carefully
selected values from the older literature, invariably choosing results that are consistent
with the hypothesis of an induced rise of CO2 in air caused by the burning of fossil
fuel. Evidence for lacking evaluation of methods results from the finding that as
accurate selected results show systematic errors in the order of at least 20 ppm [28, 29,
30, 31, 57, 73]. Most authors and sources have summarised the historical CO2
determinations by chemical methods incorrectly and promulgated the unjustifiable
view that historical methods of analysis were unreliable and produced poor quality
results [2, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 65, 74, 95].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to give special thanks to the following individuals for their help in
obtaining the historical information:
Dr. L. Brake, archive of the city of Giessen (D]
Jana Farov, Infocentrum Mesto Tbor, (Cz]
Dr. Haus, archivist Buderus company at Wetzlar (D]
Ralph-Christian Mendelsohn, German Weather Wervice (DWD], Offenbach (D]
Dr. Franziska Rogger, archive university of Bern (CH]
Prof. Dr. Albrecht Vaupel, coworker of W. Kreutz, RWD/ DWD (D]
Dr. W. Wranik, Institute of Biosciences, Marine Biology Rostock (D]
I am especially indepted to
Prof. Dr. Arthur Roersch, Dr. Hans Jelbring, Andre Bijkerk and Prof. Dr. Bob
Carter for helpful discussions, Prof. Dr. Arthur Roersch, Dr. Hans Jelbring for
helping to produce a condensed draft and Prof. Dr. Arthur Roersch and Prof. Dr.
Bob Carter for their linguistic support.
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