Set, Re M, D

Sets, Relations and Functions
AIEEE Syllabus
Sets and their representation, Union, Intersection and Complements of
sets and their Algebraic properties, Relations, Equivalence relations,
CHAPTER
1
M apping, one-one, Into and Onto m appings, Com position of
mappings
The concept of set is the basis of the modern Mathematics. It is widely used in THIS CHAPTER
various branches of Mathematics. INCLUDES :
`Set' was used for the first time by a German Mathematician 'George-cantor'. He Representation of Set
Number System
defined set as "Any collection into a whole of definite and distinct objects of our
Types of Sets
intuition or thought". This definition of set was discussed and modified to the most
Subset, Superset and
acceptable form as "A set is any collection of distinct and distinguishable objects proper subsets
of our intuition or thought". Universal Set
In this chapter, the emphasis is on developing the graphical approach among Intervals as subsets of R
students while solving a problem, from the very beginning. The use of Venn diagrams Venn diagrams
makes many problems very simple and it should be put to use as frequently as Operations on Sets
possible. Complement of Set
Algebra of Sets
The concept of relation is very useful to understand a function. If function or not
Ordered pairs
as a function can only be understood the concept of relation is clear.
Cartesian product of
'aRb' means 'a' is R-related to b', where R may be any given relation between a & b. sets
The concept of function lays the foundation of the study of the most important Relations
Dom ain & range of
branch 'calculus' of mathematics. The word 'function' is derived from a Latin word
relation
meaning 'operation'. Function is also called mapping.
Representation of
relation
SET - Set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects
Types of relation
The objects of a set have a common property. An object having this property Equivalence relations
belongs to this set and another object not possessing this property does not Composition of relation
belong to that set.
Partition of set
For example, the collection of books written by Shakespere is a set, but the Congruence modulation
collection of interesting books written by Shakespere is not a set, since a book The graph of a function
found interesting by one person may not be liked by another. Domain of the function
Example : Algebraic operation on
functions
The set of all known planets in solar system, set of days in a week, set of all
Some standard functions
whole numbers, set of consonants in English alphabet etc.
and their graphs
Illustration 1 : Kinds of Function
Types of Mappings or
Choose the collection of objects, among the following, that are sets.
Functions
1. The collection of all students of Aakash Institute. Composition of
2. The collection of most talented Artists of India. Function
Existence of an inverse
3. The collection of bright students at IIT Kanpur.
function
Aakash IIT-JEE - Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, Plot No. 4, Sector-11, Dwarka, New Delhi-75 Ph.: 45543147/8 Fax : 25084119
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AIEEE/State CET Sets, Relations and Functions
4. The collection of all prime-ministers of India.

5. The collection of all lucky numbers.
6. The collection of Indian states.
7. The collection of all tasty dishes.
8. The collection of all secular nations.
Solution :
1, 4, 6, 8 are sets as there is no ambiguity about their members. 2 and 3, 6 and 7 do not represent sets as
there is no definite yardstick for being most talented, bright, lucky or tasty. Different people shall address to
these terms differently.
Set-Notations
A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C,... etc. whereas its members or elements or objects are
denoted by lowercase letters such as a, b, c,....etc.
The greek symbol is used to denote the phrase 'belongs to'. Symbol is called membership relation.
x A 'x belongs to A' or 'x is an element of A' or 'x is a member of A' or 'x is an object of A'.
x A 'x does not belong to A'

e.g. a set of English alphabet.
6 set of English alphabet.

Representation of a Set
A set can be represented by two methods
1. Roster form or tabular form
2. Set builder form or rule method.
Roster or Tabular Form
Here the elements of set are listed seperated by commas within braces or curly brackets {}. Here order of
listing is immaterial and no element is repeated.
For example, the set A of all single digit natural numbers is written as
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} or A = {1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4, 9, 8, 7}
(order is immaterial)
Set-Builder Form:
Here we choose a variable (say x), which represents each element of the set satisfying a particular property.
Inside the bracket, x is followed by symbol: (or ; or vertical line '|' or oblique line '/' followed by the property
or properties, possessed by each element of set. For example, the set A of all even integers less than 10 is
written as
A = {x : x is an even integer less than 10}
= {x | x is an even integer less than 10}
= {x ; x is an even integer less than 10}
= {x / x is an even integer less than 10}
The symbol following x is read as 'such that'.
The roster form of A is written as
A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
Note : '0' is an even integer
Set builder form is also called, rule method, property method or symbolic method.
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Sets, Relations and Functions AIEEE/State CET
Illustration 2 :
Write each of the following into another form of set writing.

(a) A = {x / x N and x 6}
1 3 5 7
(b) B = , , ,
2 4 6 8
(c) C = {1, 1, i, i}
(d) D = {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}
(e) E = {x : x2 5x + 6 = 0}
(f) F = {x | x is a letter of word IITJEE}
(g) G = {n3 n2 : n N and 2 n 4}
(h) H = {1, 8, 27, 64,...........,10)
Solution :
(a) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2n 1
(b) Each element is of the form hence
2n
2n 1
B = {x : x = , n N, n 4}
2n
(c) 'C' is a set of fourth roots of unity
Hence C = {x : x4 = 1}
(d) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 are clearly of the form 2n, where n is a natural number less than 6. so
D = {x : x = 2n; n N, n < 6}
(e) The roots of given equation must form the solution, hence
E = {2, 3}
(f) No element has to be repeated, hence
F = { I, T, J, E}
(g) G = {4, 18, 48}
(h) All the listed numbers are cube of natural numbers. So
H = {x : x = n3, n N, n 10}
Standard Notations for Sets of Numbers
Set of all Symbol i.e.

1. Natural number N N = {1, 2, 3.......}
2. Integers Z or I Z or I = {.......3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,....}
3. (a) Positive integers Z+ Z+ = {1, 2, 3,......}
(b) Negative integers Z Z = {.....3, 2, 1}
4. Integers excluding 0 I0 I0 = { 1, 2, 3........}
5. Even integers E E = {0, 2, 4........}
6. Odd integers O O = { 1, 3, 5........}
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Set of all Symbol i.e.
p
7. Rational numbers Q Q = {x : x = , p and q are integers, q 0}
q
8. Non-zero rational numbers Q0 Q0= {x : x Q, x 0}
9. Positive rational numbers Q+ Q+ = {x : x Q, x > 0}
10. Real numbers R Here all rational and irrational numbers are
included
11. Non-zero real numbers R0 R0 = {x : x R, x 0}
12. Positive real number R+ R+ = {x : x R, x > 0}
13. Complex numbers C C = {a + ib; a, b R and i = 1 }
14. Non-zero complex number C0 C0 = {x : x C, x 0}
15. Natural numbers less than or equal Nk Nk = {1, 2, 3, 4, .....k}
to K, where K is positive integer
16. Whole numbers W W = {0, 1, 2, 3,......}
p
R is a subset of C (R C). Irrational numbers cannot be written in form.
q
Non-repeating and non-terminating decimals are called irrational.
e.g. 2 , 5 3 , , e, log 2 10
Note : Students are advised to well-acquaint themselves with the following chart.
NUMBER SYSTEM
Number System
Complex Number(C)
Real Numbers (R) Imaginary Numbers

2
(3i, w, w etc.)
Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers

( 2, 3, etc.)
Integers (I) or (Z) Fractions
+
Positive Integers (Z ) O Negative Integers (Z )
Whole Numbers (W)
Natural Numbers (N)
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Types of Sets
1. Null Set (or Empty Set or Void Set)
A set which has no element. It is denoted by or {}.

Examples.
(i) A = Set of odd numbers divisible by 2.
(ii) B = Set of all omnipresent humans.
(iii) C = Set of all negative natural numbers
(iv) D = Set of all Greek letters in English alphabet.
a. {0} or { } is not an empty set.
b. is called the null set and () not a null set.
Since is unique.
c. is a subset of every set.
d. Cardinal number of is zero.

e. A set having at least one member is non-empty set.
2. Singleton Set
A set having a single element only e.g. { }, {0}, {2}, {a} etc. each is sigleton set or unit set.
Examples :
A = Set of present chief justice of India.
B = {x : x2 = 1, x > 0}
C = {x : x is the slope of all straight lines parallel to x-axis}
3. PairSet
A set having two elements only.
e.g. {0, 1}, { 1}, {x : x is a root of x2 5x + 6 = 0}
4. Set of Sets
A set S having all its elements as sets is called set of sets or a family of sets or a class of sets.
e.g. {{1, 2}, {2, 3} {1, 2, 3}} is a set of sets as each member is a set itself.
{{1, 2}, 7, {1, 7, 4}} is not a set of set as 7 is not a set.
5. Finite and Infinite Set
A set having finite number of elements in it is called finite set otherwise infinite set. The number of members
in an infinite set are infinite i.e. can not be counted. The number of elements in a finite set A is called
Cardinal number, n(A), of set A.
Example :
(i) I, N, W, Q, R all are infinite sets
(ii) Set of all IIT in India is a finite set.
(iii) Set of all supreme court judges in India is finite set.
is a finite set as n() 0
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6. Equivalent Sets :
Two sets A and B are equivalent iff n(A) = n(B).
2 3 4 5 6
e.g. A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = , , , , are equivalent sets as n(A) = n(B) = 5
3 4 5 6 7
7. Equal Sets:
Two sets A and B are equal if both have all the elements same i.e. A is a subset of B and B is also a
subset of A. The order of elements is immaterial.
A = B A B and B A
e.g. {a, b, c} = {a, c, b}
A B if x A x B and x B x A
Equal sets are also equivalent but equivalent sets may or may not be equal .
Illustration 3 :
Match the following columns.

Column (A) Column (B)
(a) A = {x : x is prime, x E (i) Finite set but not void set
(b) B = {(x, y} : y2 = 4x, x, y R} (ii) Pair set
(c) C = {(x, y} : y2 = 4x, x I, 0 < x < 5} (iii) Singleton set
(d) D = Set of all Muslim Indian Prime Ministers (iv) Void set
(e) E = Set of all Positive integers less than 3 (v) Infinite set
Solution :
Answer : (a)(iii); (b)(v); (c)(i); (d)(iv); (e)(ii)
(a) Only prime even number is 2 hence A = {2}
(b) There are infinite number of points (x, y) lying on curve y2 = 4x. So B is infinite set.
(c) C = {(1, +2), (1, 2), (2, 2 2 ), (2, 2 2 ), (3, 2 3 ), (3, 2 3 ), (4, 4), (4, 4)}. n(c) = 8 hence finite
set.
(d) As no Indian Prime Minister has been a Muslim so far so D =

(e) E = {1, 2} hence pair set.
Illustration 4 :
Find the only correct option among following.

(a) {x : x2 = 3, x Q} is a pair set.
(b) A = {x : x Z and x2 3} and B = {x : x R and x2 3x + 2 = 0} are equal sets.
(c) {x : x is people of India speaking Hindi} is an infinite set
(d) The set of prime numbers less than 99 is finite set.
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Solution :
Answer (d)
(a) It give x = 3 which are not rational numbers, hence . False.
(b) A= {1, 0,+1}; B = {1, 2}. A B. False
(c) It is a finite set clearly. False
(d) Clearly it is a finite set. True
SUBSETS, SUPERSETS, PROPER SUBSETS

A set 'A' is called a subset of set B if every member of set A also belongs to set B. (sign of subset is )
A B [x A x B] (A is contained in B)
Here set B is called superset of A. B A
A
B is read as 'A is not a subset of B'.
Example :
A = {x : x N} and B = {x : x Z}
So A B as every natural number is also an integer.
Example :
A = {a, e, i, o, u}; B = {x : x is a letter of English alphabet}
AB
Example :
A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {e, o, u, i, a}
A B and B A A = B.
Proper Subset
A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if every element of Set A is an element of set B and set B
has atleast one extra element which is not an element of A.
Proper subset is denoted by A B(read as "A is a proper subset of B")
AB (read as "A is not a proper subset of B")
Example :
A = {a, e, i, o, u}; B = {Set of all letters of English alphabet}.
Clearly A B and A B.
(i) A B and A B A B.
(ii) Every set is a subset as well as superset of itself. A A
(iii) No set is a proper subset of itself. A A
(iv) is a subset of every set. A
(v) may or may not be a proper subset of any set.
(vi) If A B and B C A C
(vii) If A B and B C A C
(viii) If A B and B A A = B
N W I QR C
If cardinal number of a set is n then number of its subsets is 2n and its number of proper subsets is (2n 1).
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Comparability of Sets
Two sets A and B are called comparable if A B or B A or A B, otherwise A and B are called
incomparable.
Example :
{a, e, i} and {a, e, o} are incomparable.
{a, e, i} and {a, e, i, o, u} are comparable.
{a, e, i} and {e, i, a} are comparable.
Power Set
The set of all subsets of a set A is called power set of A and is denoted by P(A) or 2A.
P(A) = {x : x A}
x P(A) x A
P(A) and A P(A)
Example :
A = {1, 2, 3}
P(A) = 2A = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
n(A) = 3 so n(2A) = 23 = 8
(i) If A has n elements then its power set P(A) contains 2n elements. nP(A) = 2n.
(ii) and A both belong to P(A).
(iii) If A = then P(A) = {} is a singleton set.
(iv) If A = {t} then P(A) {, {t}} is a pair set.
n n
(v) If cardinal number of set A is n then total number of subsets of P(A) = 2 2 and proper subsets = 2 2 1.
(vi) If A B P(A) P(B)
Illustration 5 :
A = {(x, y) : y2 = x, x R} and B = {(x, y) : y = x , x R}. Choose the correct option/options among the
following.
(a) A = B
(b) B A and A B
(c) A and B are comparable sets.
(d) A and B both are infinite sets.
Solution:
Answers : (c) and (d)
Set A and Set B include all the points lying on the respective curves below. Clearly A B, B A, so A and
B are comparable; A B and both are infinite sets as infinite number of points satisfy each.
y y
x x
y Set - A y Set - B
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Illustration 6 :
Prove that if A has n elements then its power set has 2n elements.
Solution :
n(n 1)(n 2).....upto r terms

Methods of selecting r things from n different things is given by n Cr , where
|r
|r = 1.2.3 ....r..
The number of subsets of A having no element = n C o = 1 i.e.
The number of subsets of A having one element = n C1
The number of subsets of A having two elements = n C 2

-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
n
The number of subsets of A having n elements = Cn
n n n n
Thus total number of subsets of A = Co + C1 + C 2 +......+ Cn
= (1 + 1)n = 2n
(by binomial theorem)
Universal Set
Any set which is the superset of all the sets under consideration is called the universal set ( or S or U).
Choice of universal set is not unique, but once chosen it is fixed for that discussion.
Example:
Let A = {a, e, i}; B = {i, o, u}; C = {e, f}
then U = {a, e, i, o, u, f}
or U = {a, e, i, p, o, u, f, g}
or U = Set of all English alphabet.
Illustration 7 :
Mark T/F against the each statement given below:

(a) Every set has at least one proper subset.
(b) If A is a finite, non-void set, having n proper subsets and m subsets then n m N.
(c) A = {, {}} then cardinal number of P(A) is 4.
(d) a {a,{b},{c}}
(e) 'Set of all squares in a plane' is a subset of 'all rectangles in the same plane'.
Solution :
Answer : (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) T
(a) Void set { }, has no proper subset.
(b) n m = 1 N
(c) P(A) = {, {}, {{}}, {,{}}} so n {P(A)} = 4.
(d) Since 'a' is not a set hence it cannot be a subset. Every subset is a set in itself.
(e) Each square is also a rectangle hence true.
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Illustration 8 :
Match the following columns.

(a) A = letters of word 'ball' (i) P(A) P(B)
B = letters of word 'lab'
(b) A B (ii) A and B are incomparable
1
(c) A = {x : cosx > and 0 x } (iii) A=B
2
1
B = {x : sinx > and x }
2 3
(d) A = {(x, y) : x2 + y2 1, x, y R} (iv) AB
1
B = {(x, y) : 0 x and y = 0}
2
Solution :
Answer : a(iii); b(i); c-(ii); d(iv)
(a) A = {a, b, l}; B = {l, a, b} clearly A = B, A and B are comparable P(A) = P(B) so P(A) P(B);
A
B. Hence answer (iii) only..
(b) If A B then P(A) P(B); A and B are comparable, A B, A
B. Hence answer (i) only..
(c) A and B are as shown on number line.
Set - B
Set - A
2 5
O
6 3 2 3 6
Clearly P(A) P(B)
A and B are not comparable.
A B and A
B. Hence answers (ii) only..
(d) A is all points within on a circle of radius 1 and centre (0, 0). B contains only the points lying on x-axis
1
within the circle such that 0 x , so clearly B A; B A, A and B are comparable P(A) P(B).
2
Hence only correct answer is (iv).
Intervals as Subsets of R
Four type of subsets can be defined on R as given below.
Let a, b R, such that a < b
1. Open Interval
(a, b) or] a, b [ = {x : a < x < b}
= Set of all real numbers between a and b, not including a and b both.
a b
] a, b[ or (a, b)
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2. Closed Interval
[a, b] = {x : a x b}
= Set of all real numbers between a and b as well as including a and b both.
a b
[a, b]
3. Open-closed Interval (semi closed or semi open interval)
(a, b] or ]a, b] = {x : a < x b}
= Set of all real numbers between a and b, a not included but b included.
a b
(a, b] or ]a, b]
4. Closed-open interval (semi closed or semi open interval)
[a, b) or [a, b[ = {x : a x < b}
= Set of all real numbers between a and b including a but excluding b.
a b
[a, b) or [a, b[
Some More Representations on Number Line

Infinite open interval
x>a a
x<b b
Infinite close interval b
xb
xa a
(0, ) = R+
( , 0) = R
( , ) = R
VENN DIAGRAMS
Introduced by Euler (a Swiss mathematician) and named after John Venn. It is a pictorial representation of sets
in which a set is represented by a circle or a closed geometrical figure inside universal set which is shown
by a rectangle. Each element of a set is represented by a point within the circle representing that set.
S B S
a aA
A b d b c
c e
A = {a, b, c} A B; A = {a, b}; B = {a, b, c, d}; e A; e B
Various Operations on Sets

Union of Sets : A B (read as 'A union B' or 'A cup B' or 'A join B') is a set consisting of all the elements
which are either in A or in B or in both.
A B = {x : x A, x B}
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S S A S
B B
A B
A
AB AB AB
x A B x A x B
'' denotes ' or'
x A B x A and x B
Example:
Q Set of all rational numbers
Q Set of all irrational numbers
R = Q Q
n
A1 A2 A3 ................. An = Ai
i1

A1 A2 A3 ......................... = Ai
i1
AB=A+B
Union of finite number of finite sets is a finite set
Union of finite sets with an infinite set is an infinite set
A A = A, A = A, A S = S
S = S, = , If A B then A B = B
Illustration 9 :
Choose the correct options among the following for any sets A and B.
(a) P(A) P(B) may be equal to P(A)
(b) P(A) P(B) may be equal to P(A B)
(c) P(A) P(B) must be a subset of P(A B)
(d) P(A) P(B) must be equal to P(A B)
Solution :
Answer: (a), (b), (c) are true.
If A B then P(A) P(B), hence option (a) is true.
If A = B then A B = A = B and P(A) P(B) = P (A B), option (b) is true.
Option (c) is always correct A and B.
Option (d) is not correct when A B. e.q. A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 4}
then A B = {1, 2, 4}
P(A) = {, {1}, {2}, [1, 2]}
P(B) = {, {1}, {4}, [1, 4]}
P(A) P(B) = {, {1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2,}, {1, 4}}
P(A B) = {, {1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2,}, {1, 4}, {1, 2, 4}}
So P(A) P(B) P (A B).
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INTERSECTION OF TWO SETS

A B (read as 'A intersection B' or 'A cap B' or 'A meet B') is defined as a set containing all the elements
common to A and B.
AB = {x : x A and x B}
= {x : x A x B}
x A B x A and x B
x A B x A or x B
A S S A S
A
B
B B
AB AB AB =
n
A1 A2 A2 ............. An = Ai = {x : x Ai i}
i1
A B = AB
Intersection of finite number of finite sets will be a finite set
Intersection of finite set with infinite set will be finite set
Intersection of two or more infinite sets may or may not be finite
A A = A; A = ; A S = A; S =
= ; if A B then A B = B; (A B) A = A; (A B) A = A
Illustration 10 :
Considering the wall-clock as shown in figure.

12
Let S = Set of all points in area covered by second's hand in 12 hours.
m
M = Set of all points in area covered by minute's hand in 12 hours. h
s
9 3
H = Set of all points in area covered by hour's hand in 12 hours.
Then pick the correct statement among following.
6
(a) S M H = S (b) (S M) H = S
(c) S M H = H (d) All are correct
Solution :
Answer : (a) and (c).
H M S (since hours hand is smallest in length)
option (b) is wrong, since S M = M and (S M) H = M H = M.
Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B having no element in common are disjoint or mutually exclusive A B = A and B
are disjoint.
A S
A and B are disjoint

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Example:
z+ and z are disjoint
Set of all boys and set of all girls are disjoint
Set of Hindi alphabet and set of English alphabet are disjoint
Set of years of birth of adults and set of years of birth of minors are disjoint
Q and Q are disjoint
A family of various sets is pairwise disjoint if no two members of this family have a common
element.
Note: If A1, A2 ............ An are pairwise disjoint then A1 A2 ......... An = ,

But if A1 A2 .......... An = , A1, A2 ............ An may not be pairwise disjoint.
C
A B
A B C = ; but A and B, B and C are not disjoint.

So A, B and C are not pairwise disjoint.
Difference of Two Sets
A B (read 'A minus B') or (relative complement of B in A) is the set of all elements of A which are not
elements of B.
A B = {x : x A and x B}
B A = {x : x B and x A}
A S S S
B A A
B B
A B when B A AB BA
A S B S
A
B
A B, when A and B A B = when

are disjoint A B = A A = B or A B
x A B x A and x B
[Difference of two sets is not commutative]
ABBA
Delete the elements of set B from set A and remaining set is A B.
(A B), (B A) and (A B) are disjoint sets.
A B A; B A B, A = A
AA=
A B = A ~ B = A/B = CAB (complement of B in A)
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Symmetric Difference of Two Sets

Denoted by A B or A B, (A direct sum B)
AB = (A B) (B A)
= (A B) (A B)
A S A S A S B S
B A
B
B
AB=AB A B = (A B) (A B) A B = (A B) A B = (B A)
when A and B when B A when A B
are disjoint
AB=BA commutative
A B = {x : x A and x B} {x : x A and x B}
Complement of a Set
If 'A' be a set and U be the universal set such that A U then complement of set A is denoted by
A or AC or C (A) or U A
A' = AC = C(A) = U A = {x : x U and x A}
if x A x A'
x A' x A
U
A
C
U A, or A or A' or C(A)
U = ; = U; A A = U, A A =
Illustration 11 :
If A = {5, 6, 7, 8}; B = {3, 9, 8, 10} and S = {1, 2, 3, 4....... 10} then,
(a) (A B) = {1, 2, 3, 4} (b) (A B) = {8}
(c) (A B) = (A B) (d) None of these is true
Solution :
Answer (d)
A B = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} hence (A B) = {1, 2, 4}, (a) is wrong.
A B = {8} hence (A B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10}, (b) is wrong.
(A B) = {1, 2, 4} (A B), (c) is wrong.
Hence answer (d) is correct.
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Illustration 12 :
If A = {(x, y) : y = ex; x R} U = {(x, y) : x, y R} U

A
B = {(x, y) : y = x; x R}
C = {(x, y) : y = x; x R}
B
Choose the correct statement/s among the following :
(a) (A B) = (b) (A B C) =
(c) A B = (d) A B = A B
Solution : C
Answer : (d)
Set A, B and C are the points on the curves as shown in adjacent diagram. Clearly A B =
so (A B) = U, option (a) is wrong.
Similarly A B C = as there are no common points to all the three curves. (A B C) = U.
Option (b) is wrong.
From figure it is clear that A B = A, since A and B are disjoint sets. Option (c) is wrong.
AB = (A B) (B A)
=AB
ALGEBRA OF SETS
1. Idempotent Laws : For any set A, we have
(a) AA=A
(b) AA=A
2. Identity laws : For any set A, we have
(a) A=A
(b) A =
(c) AU=U
(d) AU=A
3. Commutative laws : For any two sets A and B, we have
(a) AB=BA
(b) AB=BA
4. Associative laws : For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(a) (A B) C = A (B C)
(b) (A B) C = A (B C)
5. Distributive laws : For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(a) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(b) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
6. Demorgan's laws : For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(a) (A B) = A B'
(b) (A B) = A B
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(c) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(d) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(A')' = A (for any set A)
P(A) P(B) = P(A B)
P(A) P(B) P(A B)
Illustration 13 :
Shade (A B) (A C) in the following diagrams
S A B S
A C
B
(i) (ii)
C
B S S
A C B
C A
(iii) (iv)
Solution:
A S A B S
B C
(i) (ii)
C
B S S
A C B
C
(iii) (iv)
SOME THEOREMS For any sets A, B and C, we have

1. A B = A B'
2. A B = B A B
3. A B = A A B
4. (A B) B = A B
5. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Some more operations on sets.
A A B; A B A; (A B) B =
A B B' A' A B = B' A'
A B) (A B') = A; A B = (A B) (B A) (A B)
A A B) = A B; A B = B A A = B
A B = A B A = B; A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
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Some Basic Results about Cardinal Numbers

If A, B and C are finite sets and U is finite universal set, then we have
1. n(A') = n(U) n(A)
2. n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B)
3. If n (A B) = n(A) + n(B) A B = i.e. A and B are disjoint.
4. n(A B') = n(A) n(A B)
5. n(A' B') = n(A B)' = n(U) n(A B)
6. n(A' B') = n(A B)' = n(U) n(A B)
7. n(A B) = n(A) n(A B)
8. n(A B) = n(A B) n(A B') n(A' B)
9. n(A B) = n(A B) n(A B)
10. n(A B C) = n(A) n(B) + n(C) n(A B) n(A C) n(B C) + n(A B C)
11. If A1, A2....An are pairwise disjoint sets then, n(A1 An) = n(A1) + n(A2) + ...+n(An)
12. Number of elements belonging to exactly two of sets A, B and
C = n(A B) + n(B C) + n(C A) 3. n(A B C)
13. Number of elements belonging to atleast two of sets A, B and
C = n(A B) + n(B C) + n(C A) 2. n(A B C)
14. Number of elements belonging to atmost two of sets A, B and C = n(A B C) n(A B C)
15. Numbers of elements belonging to exactly one of the sets A, B and
C = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) 2n(A B) 2n(A C) 2n(B C) + 3 n(A B C)
RELATIONS
a R b means 'a is R-related to b' i.e. a is related to b under relation R. If (a, b) R; (a, b) is called ordered
pair in the sense that a and b can't be interchanged as a A and b B.
Ordered Pair :
It is a pair of objects written in a particular order. Two members are written in a particular order separated by
a comma and enclosed in parentheses. Hence in ordered pair (a, b) a is called the first component or the
first element or the first co-ordinate and b the second.
Ordered pairs (a, b) and (b, a) are different.

(a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c and b = d
i.e. (1, 3) = (1, 3); (1, 3) (1, 2) (2, 3) (3, 1)
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Cartesian product of two sets A B : For any two non empty sets A and B
A B = {(a, b) : a A and b B}
It is a set of all ordered pairs such that in each ordered pair first element belongs to set A and second element
belongs to set B.
A B is read as 'A cross B' or 'Product set of A and B'
A B = {(a, b) : a A b B}
Thus (a, b) A B a A and b B.
B A = {(b, a) : b B a A}
ABBA (not commutative)
n(A B) = n(A) n(B) and n(P(A B)) = 2n(A) n(B)
A = and B = A B =
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Cartesian product of n non empty sets A1, A2, ......An is a set of all n tuples
(a1, a2,........an)
such that each ai Ai, i = 1, 2.........n.
n
A1 A2 ....... An = A
i 1
i
A A = A2 : R R = R2 is a set of all points lying in the plane

R R R = R3 represents set of all points in 3-D space.
If at least one of A and B is infinite set then A B is also infinite set,
provided that other is non-empty set.
Illustration 14 :
Let A = {a, b}, B = {c, d}, C = {e, f}

then n(A B C) = n(A). n(B). n(C) = 8
A B C = {(a, c, e), (a, c, f), (a, d, e), (a, d, f), (b, c, e), (b, c, f), (b, d, e), (b, d, f)}
Each element of A B shall be an ordered pair or 2tuple

Each element of A B C shall be an ordered triplet or 3tuple
Each element of A1 A2 .....An shall be ntuple
Illustration 15 :
A1 A2 A3 A4 = {(1, 1, 1, 1), (2, 4, 8, 16), (3, 9, 27, 81), ........}. Find A1, A2, A3 and A4.
Solution :
Each ordered pair {x1, x2, x3, x4} is of the form {x, x2, x3, x4}
Hence x1 A1 A1 = {x x N} = {1, 2, 3, 4, .....}
x2 A2 A2 = {x2 x N} = {12, 22, 32, 42, .....}
x3 A3 A3 = {x3 x N} = {13, 23, 33, 43, .....}
x4 A4 A4 = {x4 x N} = {14, 24, 34, 44, .....}
Key Results on Cartesian Product

If A, B, C, D are four sets, then.
1. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
2. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
3. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
4. (A B) (C D) = (A C) (B D)
5. If A B, then (A C) (B C)
6. If A B, then (A B) (B A) = A2
7. If A B, then A A (A B) (B A)
8. If A B and C D, then (A C) (B D)
9. A B = B A A = B
10. A (B' C')' = (A B) (A C)
11. A (B' C')' = (A B) (A C)
If A and B are two non-empty sets having n elements in common then (A B) and (B A) have n2 elements
in common.
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Illustration 16 :
If n(A) = 7, n(B) = 8 and n(A B) = 4, then match the following columns.

(i) n(A B) (a) 56
(ii) n(A B) (b) 16

(iii) n((B A) A) (c) 392
(iv) n((A B) (B A)) (d) 96
(v) n((A B) (B A)) (e) 11
Solution :
Answer : (i)(e); (ii)(a); (iii)(c); (iv)(b); (v)(d)
(i) n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B)
= 7 + 8 4 = 11
(ii) n(A B) = n(A) n(B) = 7 8 = 56 = n(B A)
(iii) n((B A) A) = n(B A). n(A) = 56 7 = 392
(iv) n((A B) (B A)) = (n((A B))2 = 42 = 16
(v) n((A B) (B A)) = n(A B) + n(B A) n(A B) (B A)

= 56 + 56 16 = 96
Illustration 17 :
If A = {2, 4} and B ={3, 4, 5}, then (A B) (A B) is
(1) {(2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 2), (5, 4)}
(2) {(2, 3), (4, 3), (4, 5)}
(3) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
(4) {(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5)}

Solution :
Answer (4)
A B = {4} and A B = {2, 3, 4, 5}
(A B) (A B) = {(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
Pictorial Representation of Cartesian Product of Two Sets :

Arrow diagram :
Let A = {1, 2, 3} B = (a, b)
1 a
2
AB
3 b
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Lattice-Diagram :
Axis OX represents elements of A and perpendicular axis OY represents set B. Each dot represents an ordered
pair of A B.
Let A = (1, 2, 3)
B = (1, 3)
y
3 (1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3)
1 (1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1)
O 1 2 3 x
RELATIONS
For any two non-empty sets A and B, every subset of A B defines a relation from A to B and every relation
from A to B is a subset of A B.
a R b A B R
If (a, b) R, then a R b is read as 'a is related to b'
If (a, b) R, then a R b is read as 'a is not related to b'
Domain and Range of Relation

Domain of R = Dom(R) = Set of first components of all the ordered pairs belonging to R.
Range of R = Set of second components of all the ordered pairs belonging to R.
Co-domain of R = B where R is a relation from A to B
Range of R Co-domain of R
Dom(R) = {a A : (a, b) R for some b B}
Range of R = {b B : (a, b) R for some a A}
If R = A B, then Dom(R) = A and Range of R = B
Dom () = ; Range of =
Illustration 18 :
Let A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7} and B = {1, 4, 6, 7} and R be the relation 'is one less than' from A to B, then list the
domain, range and co-domain sets of R.
Solution :
R = {(3, 4), (5, 6)}

So, Dom(R) = {3, 5}
Range of R = {4, 6}
Co-domain of R = B = {1, 4, 6, 7}
Clearly Range of R co-domain of R.
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Representation of a Relation
Let A = {2, 1, 4} B = {1, 4, 9}

A relation from A to B i.e. a R b is defined as a is less than b.
This can be represented in the following ways.
1. Roster form:
R = {(2, 1), (2, 4), (2, 9), (1, 1), (1, 4), (1, 9), (4, 9)}
2. Set builder notation:
R = {(a, b): a A and b B, a is less than b}
3. Arrow - diagram:
A B
2 1
1 4
4 9
4. Lattice-diagram :
y
9
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
5. Tabular form:
R 1 4 9
2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4 0 0 1
Note : If (a, b) R, then we write '1' in the row containing a and column containing b and if (a, b) R,
we write '0' in the respective row and column.
Illustration 19 :
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 3,.......10}

R1 = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 7)}
R2 = {(2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 7), (5, 8)}
R3 = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}
Among R1, R2, R3, choose those, that represent a relation from A to B, and represent the relations in set-
builder form.
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Solution :
R1 A B; R A B, R A B
Hence R2 is not a relation as (5, 8) A B
R1 = {(a, b) : a A , b B and a + 3 = b}
R3 = {(a, b) : a A , b B and a2 = b}
Any subset of A A is a relation on A. If n(A) = p and n(B) = q then n(A B) = pq
Total number of subsets of (A B) = 2pq
Hence 2pq different relations are possible from A to B.
Inverse Relation
Let R A B be a relation from A to B.
The inverse relation of R (denoted by R1) is a relation from B to A defined as R1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) R}
If (a, b) R, then (b, a) R1, a A, b B.
domain of R1 = Range of R
Range of R1 = domain of R
(R1)1 = R
Identity Relation
The identity relation on a set A is the set of ordered pairs belonging to A A and is denoted by IA.
IA = {(a, a) : a A}
i.e. every element of A is related to only itself.
R is an identity relation if (a, b) R iff a = b, a A, b A.
IA1 = IA
Domain of IA= Range of IA = A
Illustration 20 :
'is equal to' is an identity relation on set of Natural number (N)

i.e. {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3).........} = IN
Universal Relation
If A be a set and R is the set A A, then R is called universal relation in A.
If R = A A, then R is universal relation in A.
Void Relation
is called the empty or void relation if A A
Types of Relations on a Set

If A is a non-empty set, then a relation R on A is said to be
1. Reflexive :
If (a, a) R, a A.
i.e. a R a, a A
is equal to, is a friend of, is parallel to, are some of reflexive relations.
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2. Symmetric :
If a R b b R a, a, b A
i.e. if (a, b) R (b, a) R, a, b A
is a friend of, is parallel to, is equal to, are some of symmetric relations.
3. Anti-Symmetric :
If a R b and b R a a = b, a, b A (If R R1 = Identity, then R is anti-symmetric)
is divisible by is an anti symmetric relation.
4. Transitive :
If a R b and b R c a R c, a, b, c A
i.e. If (a, b) R and (b, c) R (a, c) R, a, b, c A
is parallel to, is equal to, is congruent to are some of the transitive relation.
Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a non-empty set A is called an equivalence relation if and only if it is Reflexive, Symmetric
as well as Transitive.
"is parallel to", "is equal to", "is congruent to" "Identity relation" are some of the equivalence relations.
Every identity relation is an equivalence relation but every equivalence relation need not to be identity
relation.
Illustration 21 :
Check the following relations for being reflexive, symmetric, transitive and thus choose the equivalence relations
if any.
(i) a R b if a b; a, b set of real numbers.
(ii) a R b iff a < b; a, b N.
1
(iii) a R b iff a b > ; a, b R.
2
(iv) a R b iff a divides b; a, b N.
(v) a R b iff (a b) is divisble by n; a, b I, n is a fixed positive integer.
Solution :
(i) Not reflexive, not symmetric but transitive
Let a = 2 and b = 3; (2, 3) R. Since 2 3 is true
Since 2 2 2 hence relation is not Reflexive
Since 3 2 is wrong hence relation is not symmetric
Now Let a, b, c be three real numbers such that a b and b c
a b b 0, so b c b c
Hence a c is true so the given relation is transitive.

(ii) Not reflexive, not symmetric but transitive.
Since no natural number is less than itself hence not reflexive,
If a < b then b < a is false. Hence not symmetric.
If a < b then b < c clearly a < c. Hence transitive
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(iii) Not reflexive, symmetric, not transitive.
1
a a 0 hence it is not reflexive.
2
1 1
ab b a a b hence symmetric.
2 2
3 1 5 1
Let a = 1, b = 1 and c = , a b 2 so (a, b ) R; b c so (b, c) R
2 2 2 2
3 1 1
But a c 1 so( a, c ) R . Hence R is not a transitive relation.
2 2 2
(iv) Reflexive, not symmetric, transitive
a
Since = 1 i.e. every number divides itself, hence R is reflexive.
a
If a divides b then b does not divide a (unless (a = b) hence the relation is not symmetric (but anti-
symmetric).
If a divides b and b divides c then it is clear that a will divide c. Hence transitive.
(v) Relfexive, symmetric as well as transitive, hence it is an equivalence relation.
0
Since 0 is divisible by n 0 so given relation is reflexive
n
If a b is divisible by n, then (b a) will also be divisible by n. Hence, symmetric.
If a b = nI1 and b c = nI2, where I1, I2 are integer.
Then, a c = (a b) + (b c) = n(I1 + I2) so a c is also divisible by n, hence transitive.
Ordered Relation
R is an ordered relation if it is transitive but not equivalence relation. e.g. a R b iff a < b, a, b N is an
ordered relation.
e.g. R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2) (2, 3)} is not reflexive, not symmetric and transitive, hence not an
equivalence relation.
so, R is an ordered relation.
Partial Order Relation
R is an partial order relation if it is reflexive, transitive and antisymmetric at the same time.
Illustration 22 :
a R b iff a divides b; a, b N is partial order relation since it is reflexive, transitive and anti-symmetric.
If R is reflexive R1 is reflexive
If R is symmetric R1 is symmetric
If R is transitive R1 is transitive
Hence if R is an equivalence relation R1 is equivalence relation
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COMPOSITION OF TWO RELATIONS

If A, B, C are three sets such that R A B and S B C then SOR A C.
SOR, ROS, (SOR)1, S1OR1, S1OR etc. are called compositions of two relations.
(SOR)1 = R1OS1
(R1OR2OR3.....ORn)1 = Rn1ORn11 O......OR31OR21OR11
Pictorially
A B
R S
a b c
SOR
Illustration 23 :
Let R be a relation such that R = {(a, d), (c, g) (d, e), (d, f) (g, f)} then find (i) R1OR1 (ii) (ROR1)1
Solution :
R1OR1 = (ROR)1 and (ROR1)1 = ROR1
Clearly R1 = {(d, a), (g, c), (e, d), (f, d), (f, g)}
Domain of R = {a, c, d, g}; Range of R = {d, g, e, f}
Domain of R1 = {d, g, e, f}; Range of R1 = {a, c, d, f}
(i) R = {(a, d), (c, g) (d, e), (d, f) (g, f)}
R1={(d, a), (g, c), (e, d), (f, d), (f, g)}
R R
ROR
From above figure clearly ROR = {(a, e), (a, f), (c, f)}
so, R1 OR1 = (ROR)1 = {(e, a), (f, a), (f, c)}
(ii)
1
R R
1
ROR
Hence ROR1 = {(d, d), (g, g), (e, e), (e, f), (f, e), (f, f)}
(ROR1)1 = ROR1 = {(d, d), (g, g), (e, e), (e, f), (f, e), (f, f)}
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Partition of a Set
If A is a non-empty set, then a partition of A is a collection of non-empty pairwise disjoints subsets of A, such
that union of collection of subsets is A.
Example :
If A1, A2, A3.......An are non empty subsets of A, then the set {A1, A2, A3.......An} is called partition of A if
(i) A1 A2 A3...... An = A
and (ii) Ai Aj = i j (i, j = 1, 2, 3.........n)
Congruence Modulo m :
Let m be a positive integer and x, y I, then x is said to be congruent to y modulo m, (x y (mod m)
iff x y is divisible by m,
xy
i.e. x y (mod m) if , I or x y m, I
m
Example:
24 8 16
24 8 (Mod 4) since 4 I
4 4
FUNCTION
Let A and B are two non empty sets. A function f from set A to set B is a rule which associated each element
of A to a unique element of B, denoted by f : A B
set A is called domain of function f
set B is called co-domain of function f
If element x of A corresponds to y(B) under the function f, then we say that y is the image of x and write
f(x) = y.
Illustration 24 :
Which of the following given below is/are a function, from R to R?
(i) f(x) = x2
(ii) f(x) = x
(iii) f(x) = 3x + 4.
Solution :
(i) Yes, because all element of domain (which is R) have images in co-domain (R).
(ii) No, this is not a function because all negative number in a domain (R), do not have images in
co-domain.
i.e. f(1) = 1 (imaginary no.)
f(2) = 2 (imaginary no.)
(iii) Yes, because all real numbers in domain have images in co-domain.
Note : (i) Any linear expression represents a function.

(ii) Range of f co-domain of f
(iii) f : A B is not a function, if there is atleast one element in A which does not have a
f-image in B or if there is an element in A which has more than one f-images in B.
(iv) A function can also be represented as a set of ordered pairs e.g. f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4),
(4,4)} is a function from {1, 2, 3, 4} to {2, 3, 4}. Clearly f = {(1,2), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is
not a function as 1 2 and 1 1.
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The Graph of a Function

The graph of a function y = f (x) consists of all points (x, f(x)) in the Cartesian plane since by definition of a
function, there is exactly one value of y for each x, it follows that no vertical line can intersect the graph of a
function of x for twice or more.
0 x
not a function of x a function of x a function of x
Domain of the Function

Domain of the function is set of all those real numbers (x) for which f(x) exists or f(x) is meaningful. f(x)
or any imaginary no.)
Illustration 25 :
1
f(x) = , f(x) exist, if x 0, so domain is R0.
x
Illustration 26 :
f(x) = x 2 , f(x) exist, if x 2 so domain [2, ).
Range of Function
Set of all the images of elements in domain is called the range.
Range = {f(x) : x domain}
Algebraic Operation on Functions

1. Given functions f and g, their sum f + g, difference f g, and fg are defined on dom f dom g as:
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), (f g) (x) = f (x) g (x) and (fg) (x) = f(x) g (x). Moreover f/g is defined on
dom f {x dom g: g(x) 0} by (f/g) (x) = f(x)/g(x).
2. If k is any real number and f is a function then kf is defined on the domain of f by (k f) (x) = k f(x).
We have the following formulae for domains of functions
(i) dom (f g) = dom f dom g
(ii) dom (f g) = dom f dom g
(iii) dom (f /g) = dom f {x dom g: g (x) 0}
(iv) dom f {x dom f; f (x) 0}
Illustration 27 :

1 x 2
Find the domain of the function f(x) = cos 5 .

Solution :
x 2
f(x) exist if 1 1
5
5<|x|25
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3|x|7
| x | 3 true x R
or | x | 7 x [7, 7].
Illustration 28 :
x2 x 1
Find the domain and range of the function f(x) = .
x2 x 1
Solution :
x2 x + 1 0 for any value of x ( b2 4ac < 0) so domain of f(x) is R
Range Let f(x) = y
x2 x 1
y
x2 x 1
x2 (1 y) + x(1 + y) + (1 y) = 0
But x is real so b2 4ac 0
(1 + y)2 4 (1 y)2 0
3y2 10y + 3 0
1
(y 3) (3y 1) 0 y , 3
3
1
so range of f(x) , 3 .
3
Illustration 29 :
Find the domain of the function f(x), if f(x) = log0.5 x .
Solution :
f(x) = log0.5 x
Now we now that f(x) exist if log0.5 x 0
x > 0 (because log x not defined for zero and negative numbers)
log0.5 x 0 x (0.5)
x1
= x ( , 1]
But x > 0
so x (0, 1].
Illustration 30 :
sin( [ x 1])
Find the range of the function f(x) = . (where [] denotes step-function)
[tan ( x 2 x 1)] 2 5
1
Solution :
Here denominator 0 x R and [x + 1] = Z (due to step. function)
sin [x + 1] = 0 (because sin of integer multiple of is always zero)
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sin x[ x 1]
so f(x) = = 0 (for x R)
[tan [ x 2 x 1] 2 5
1
f(x) = 0 x R
Range of the function = {0}
Illustration 31 :
6x
Find the domain and range of the function, f(x) = C x 3 .
Solution :
6x
f(x) = C x 3
f(x) exist if 6 x > 0 and (6 x) N
x 3 0 and x 3 W
6xx3
so x < 6 x {...2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,} ....(1)
x 3 x {3, 4 5, 6, 7......} ....(2)
6 x x 3 2x 9 x 4.5
so x {...2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} ....(3)
so final value from (1), (2) and (3) is
x {3, 4} so domain is {3, 4}
6 3
Range, f(3) = C33 = 3C0 = 1
f(4) = 2C1 = 2
so range is {1, 2}.
SOME STANDARD FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS
Constant Function
A function denoted by f(x) = C (where C R) is known as constant function
Domain = R
Range = C
f(x) y
C
x
x' O x
y'
Identity Function [I(x)] :

A function which is associated to itself is known as identity function and denoted by I(x) = x
Since x can take any value so domain of this function is R, corresponding value of I(x) is also R, so range
is R
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Domain = R
Range = R
I(x) y
x
x' x
y'
Modulus Function :
This is also known as absolute value function and denoted by
f(x) = |x|
x, x 0
i.e. f(x) =
x , x 0
Domain of this function is set of all real numbers because f(x) exists f(x)
for all x R but |x| 0 so range is all non-negative real numbers. y
Domain = R
x' x
O x
Range = [0, ]
y'
or R+ {0}
Properties of modulus function :
(a) | x |n = | xn |
(b) | xn | = xn , where n is even and n z
(c) | x y | = | x | | y |
x x
(d) , (y 0)
y y
(e) | | x | | y | | | x + y | | x | + | y |
Signum Function
x
; x0
The function f(x), defined as f(x) = x
0 ; x 0

y
is called signum function. This signum function may also defined as f(x)
1
1 ; x 0
O
f(x) = 0 ; x 0 x
1 ; x 0 1

Domain = R
Range = {1, 0, 1}
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Greatest Integer Function

This function is also known as step function or floor function denoted
by f(x) = [x]. By [x] we mean greatest integer less then or equal to 3
f(x)
x. If n is an integer and x is any real number between n and n + 1 2
i.e. n x < n + 1, then [x] = n 1
Thus [3.4] = 3, [3.99] = 3
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
[4.99] = 5, [4.001] = 5 1 x
[0.3] = 0, [0.2] = 1 2
Domain of [x] is set of all real numbers because [x] exist x R 3
But [x] is always integral number so range is set of all integers Z.
Some Properties of [x] :

(a) [x + k] = [x] + k, if k Z
(b) [x] = [x] 1
(c) [x] + [x] = 0, x Z
(d) [x] + [x] = 1, x Z
(e) [x] [x] = 2x, x Z
(f) [x] [x] = 2[x] + 1, x Z
(g) x 1 < [x] x
1 2 3 n 1
(h) x x x .......... .... x = [nx]
n n n n
(i) [x + y] [x] + [y]
(x) x
(j) n n , n N

(k) [x] n x n, n z
(l) [x] > n x n + 1, n z
(m) [x] n x < n + 1, n z
(n) [x] < n x < n, n z
Fractional Part Function :

Function denoted by f(x) = {x}, known as fractional part function.
Also defined as f(x) = x [x]
If x Z, then f(x) = 0 [i.e. f(2) = 2 [2] = 0]
If x Z, then f(x) lies between 0 to 1.
i.e. x Z, 0 < f(x) < 1 [i.e. f(3.4) = 3.4 [3.4] = 3.4 3 = 0.4]
Note : Fractional part function is a periodic function having period '1'.

Domain = R
Range [0, 1)
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Illustration 32 :
Find the value of
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 99
3 100 3 100 3 100 .......... 3 100

Where [] denote greatest integer function.
Solution :
Using properties (h) of step function
1
Here x n 100
3
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 99 1
so
3 100 3 100 3 100 .......... 3 100 3 100 33 .

Illustration 33 :
Write the equivalent function of the function f(x) = |x + 2| + |x 3|.
Solution :
First we find the critical values (values of x where modulus function vanish) which is x = 2, 3.
If x < 2, then f(x) = (x + 2) (x 3)

= 2x + 1
If 2 x < 3, then f(x) = x + 2 (x 3) = 5
If x 3, then f(x) = x + 2 + x 3 = 2x 1
2x 1 ; x 2
so f(x) = 5 ; 2 x 3.
2x 1 ; x 3

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
If f : R+ R, f(x) = loga x, then f(x) is known as logarithmic function
Here f(x) exist if x > 0 and 0 < a < 1 or a > 1 (a 1)
y
f(x)
loga x
0 x
a>1
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Properties of logarithmic function

(i) loga m.n = log m + log n
m
(ii) loga = log m log n
n
(iii) loga mn = nloga m
y
f(x)
loga x
0<a<1
x' 0 x
+
Domain = R
Range = R
y'
p
(iv) loga q b p = logab
q
logx b
(v) logab = log a = log xb.log ax
x
b a
(vi) loga . logb 1
(vii) If loga f(x) = y f(x) = (a)y
f ( x ) g ( x ) if a 1
(viii) If loga f(x) loga g(x)
f ( x ) g ( x ) if 0 a 1
f ( x ) (a )y a 1
(ix) If loga f(x) y
f ( x ) (a )y if 0 a 1
f ( x ) (a) y a 1
(x) If loga f(x) y y
f ( x ) (a) 0 a 1
Exponential Function
f(x) = ax is known as exponential function (a > 0)
f(x) a
x f(x)
x
a If 0 < a < 1
If a > 1
(0, 1) Domain = R
+ (0, 1)
Range = R
x 0 x x
x 0 x
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Illustration 34 :
How many solutions are there for equation

log4 (x 1) = log2 (x 3)?
Solution :
log4 (x 1) = log2 (x 3)
log22 (x 1) = log2 (x 3)
1
log2 (x 1) = log2 (x 3)
2
log2 (x 1)1/2 = log2 (x 3)
(x 1)1/2 = (x 3)
x 1 = x2 6x + 9
(x 2) (x 5) = 0
x = 2, 5
But x 1 > 0 and x 3 > 0
x > 1 and x > 3
So only one solution x = 5
KINDS OF FUNCTION
Polynomial Function
The function f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ........ + anxn where a0, a1, a2, ....... an R and n N is called a
polynomial function of degree n.
Rational Function
A function defined by the quotient of two polynomial function is called rational function for
Example :
x2 1
3
is a rational function.
x x 1
Irrational Function
A function involving one or more radicals of polynomial is called a irrational function
Example :
3
x 2 2x 3
x 2 x x 2, etc.
x 3 x 5
Algebraic Function
An algebraic function is one which consist of a finite number of terms involving power and roots of the variable
x and simple operation, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division i.e. all rational, and irrational functions
are algebraic functions.
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Transcendental Function
All function which are not algebric are called transcendental function.
Example :
(a) All trigometric function i.e. sin x, cos x etc.
(b) All exponential function, ex, log x, ax etc.
(c) Inverse trigonometric function sin1 x, cos1 x, etc.
Note : A transcendental function is not expressed in a finite number of algebraic terms.
Explicit Function
A function in which dependent variable (y) is expressed directly in terms of independent variable (say x)
x 2 3x 5
i.e. y = x3 + x2 + 1, y = , etc.
x 2
Implicit Function
A function in which we can't express dependent variable in terms of independent variable.
Example:
x3 + y3 + 3xy = 0, note that we can't write y or x in terms of x, or y separately.
Even or Odd Function

(a) Even function : If f(x) = f(x) then f(x) is said to be even function.
Example : f(x) = cos x is a even function [ f(x) = cos (x) = cos x = f(x)]
(b) Odd function : If f(x) = f(x) then f(x) is said to odd function.
Example : If f(x) = x3 + tan3 x is a odd function
because f(x) = (x)3 + [tan (x)]3
= x3 tan3 x
= [x3 + tan3 x]
= f(x)
so f(x) = f(x)
Note :(a) Even function is symmetrical about y-axis while odd function is symmetrical about origin (i.e.
in opposite quadrant)
(b) Addition and subtraction of two even function is always even function.
(c) Sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
(d) Any function 'f' can be represented as the sum of an even and an odd function.
1 1
f (x) [f ( x ) f ( x )] + [f (n ) f ( x )]
2 2
1 1
where [f ( x ) f ( x )] is an even and [f ( x ) f ( x )] is an odd function
2 2
(e) f(x) = 0 is the only function which is both odd and even.
Illustration 35 :
e x e x
Is a function f(x) = x. even?
e x ex
Solution : ex e x e x e x
Yes, f(x) is even, because f(x) = (x). x x = f(x)
e ex e x e x
so f(x) = f(x).
(36)
Illustration 36 :
Show that f(x) is a odd function if f(x) = log ( x 3 1 x 6 ) .
Solution :
f(x) = log ( x 3 1 x 6 )
3 6
f(x) = log ( x ) 1 ( x )

= log [x3 + 1 x 6 ]
x 3 1 x 6
x 3 1 x 6
= log
x 3 1 x 6
x 6 1 x 6 1
= log log
x 3 1 x 6 x 1 x 6
3
1
f(x) = log log x 3 1 x 6
3 6
x 1 x
so f(x) = f(x) so f(x) is odd function.
Periodic Function
A function 'f' defined on its domain is said to be periodic function if their exist a positive number T such that
f(x + T) = f(x) x D. Also both x + T and x T should belong to D.
The least value of T, it exists is called, the period of the function.
Illustration 37 :
f(x) = sin x
f(x) = sin (x + 2) = sin (x + 4) = sin (x + 6) = ..................
Here T = 2, 4, 6 ......................
Least value of T is 2, so time period of sin x is 2
Some Standard Functions and their Period

Function Period
sin x 2
cos x 2
tan x
{x} 1
Some Special Point about Periodic Function

If period of f(x) is 'T' then
T
(a) (i) Period of |f(x)| is .
2
T
(ii) Period of [f(x)]n is , if n is even number (n N)
2
(iii) Period of [f(x)]n is T, if n is odd number (n N)
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T
(iv) Period of f(ax) and f(ax + b) is a .
x
(v) Period of f is |a|.T..
a
(b) If Period of f(x) and g(x) are same say 'T' then period of f(x) g(x) is given by
T
(i) (if f(x) and g(x) both are even).
2
(ii) T (if f(x) is any function except even).
(c) If period f(x) is T 1 and g(x) is T 2. Then period of f(x) g(x) is given by L.C.M. of T 1 and T 2
f (x)
(same for )
g( x )
a c e LCM of a, c, e
Note : (i) LCM of , , .
b d f HCF of b, d , f
(ii) Sin x and sin x2 is not a periodic function because these can't be written in the form of
[f(x + T) = f(x)]
(iii) L.C.M. of rational with irrational is not possible, e.g., L.C.M. of (, 2, 2) is not possible as
, 2 irrational and 2 rational
Illustration 38 :
Calculate the period of f(x) = sin 3x + cos 2x.
Solution :
2
Period of sin 3x =
3
2
Period of cos 2x =
2
2
So, Period of f(x) is L.C.M. of , = 2
3 1
Illustration 39 :
If f(x) = 1 sin 2x is a periodic function, then find its period.
Solution :
f(x) = 1 sin 2x
= sin 2 x cos 2 x 2 sin x cos x (sin x cos x )2
Remember x 2 x
f(x) = |sin x + cos x|

Now period of sin x + cos x is 2
2
So, period of |sin x + cos x| is
2
(38)
Illustration 40 :
3
If f(x) = e sin x
cos x is a periodic function. If yes, then calculate its period.
Solution :
For periodic function f(x + T) = f(x)

3
sin (x T)
Now f(x + T) = e cos( x T )
If T = 2
3
sin (x 2 )
f(x + 2) = e cos( x 2 )
sin3 x
=e cos x f ( x )
f(x + 2) = f(x); f(x) is periodic function having period 2.
Bounded and Unbounded Function

f(x) is said to be bounded above, if there exists a fixed number say M such that f(x) is never greater then M
for all value of x. Similarly it's bounded below if there exists a fixed number m (say) that f(x) is never less
then m
i.e. M f(x) m for all value of x.
f(x) is said to be unbounded if one or both of the upper and lower (M and m) bounds of the function are infinite
Example :
f(x) = 3 + sin x is a bounded function because maximum and minimum value of sin x are +1 and 1
So, 2 f(x) 4 for all value of x.
TYPES OF MAPPINGS OR FUNCTIONS
One-one Function or Injective Function :

A function is said to be one-one function if different element in a domain have different images in co-domain.
Set A Set B
1 a
2 b if f(x1) = f(x2) then x1 = x2
3 c f(x) is one - one function
d
(domain) (co-domain)
Note : (i) Example of one-one function : Linear polynomial function (ax + b), x, ex, log x, are always
one-one functions.
dy dy
(ii) If 0 or 0 x domain , then y = f(x) is said to be one-one function.
dx dx
Number of one-one function : If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements respectively,
then number of one-one function from A to B = nPm, if n m = 0, if n < m.
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Manyone Function
A function f : A B is said to be many one if more than one element in set A have same image in Set B.
A B
1 a
b
2 c
3 d
4 e
Note : (i) All even function, modulus function, periodic function are always many-one function.
(ii) Square function, Trigonometric function are also manyone function in their domain.
Into Function
A function f: A B is said to be into function if there exist at least one element in set B having no any
pre-image in set B.
A B
a
1 b
2 c
3 d
In fig set B (co-domain) there is no pre-image, for element d, in set A, so function is into function.
Onto Function
f : A B, said to be onto function if every element in set B has a pre image in set A.
Range of f = co-domain of f.
Example of Onto function :
log x, linear polynomials, are always onto function.
Possible mappings are
(i) One-one and onto (bijective function)
(ii) Many one and onto
(iii) One-one and into
(iv) Many one-into
Example :
If f : R R, f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 then f(x) is many one function.
2
3 1
because f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 = x
2 4
2
3 1
f(2) = 2 0
2 4
2
3 1
f(1) = 1 0
2 4
So image of 2 and 1 are same
f(x) is many one.
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Example :
f(x) = 2x + sin x, is one-one because f(x) = 2 + cos x, minimum value of cos x is 1.
f(x) > 0 for all x Domain = R

Composition of Function
gof
Let f : A B and g : B C then the composition of g and f is
denoted by gof and is defined as gof : A C given by gof (x) = g(f(x)) f g
x
f(x ) g(f(x))
Similarly fog is defined. Note that, gof is defined only if Range f
dom g and fog is defined only if Range dom f. dom fog = {x dom A B C
g : g(x) dom f}
Illustration 41 :
Let f(x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = x . Since dom g = [0, ), dom f = R
we have fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f ( x ) ( x )2 3 x 3
So dom fog = {x [0, ) : g(x) R} = [0, )
Let us now find gof, we have (gof) (x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2 +3) = x2 3 ,
then dom gof = {x R : f(x) [0, )} = R.
Inverse Function
Two functions f and g are inverse of each other if f (g(x)) = x for x dom g and g(f(x)) = x for x dom f ,
i.e., gof =Idom f and fog = Idom g where Idom f is identity function on dom f and Idom g is identity function on
dom g. We denote g by f1 or f by g1. To find the inverse of f, write down the equation y = f(x) and then solve
x as a function of y. The resulting equation is x = f1 (y).
Illustration 42 :
e x ex
To find the inverse of f ( x )
2
e x ex e 2x 1
We write y 2y
2 ex
2y 4 y 2 4
e 2 x 2ye x 1 0 e x
2
ex y y 2 1 since ex 0 so e x y y 2 1
2 2
x log y y 1 . Thus f1(x) = log x x 1

The graph of f and f1 are related to each other in the
following way :
x
If the point (x, y) lies on the graph of f then the point y=e y = log x
(y, x) lies on the graph of f1 and vice versa. Thus the
graph of f1 is the reflection of the graph of f in the line
y = x as below (since we know that y = log x and y
y=x
= ex are inverse of each other).
Existence of inverse function
A function need not have an inverse. e.g. the function f(x) = x2 has no inverse (where dom f = R). To have an
inverse, a function must be both one-one and onto, i.e. bijective.
(41)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 :
Suppose A1, A2,........A30 are thirty sets each with five elements and B1, B2......Bn are n sets each with three
30 n
elements such that A i B j S . If each element S belongs to exactly ten of the A i ' s and exactly nine
i 1 j 1
of the Bj's, then the value of n is

(1) 15 (2) 135 (3) 45 (4) 90
Solution :
Answer: (3)
Total number of elements in all A's = 30 5 = 150
Total number of elements in all B's = 3n
Let there are p elements in set S and each is repeated ten times in A's and nine times in B's exactly, so
10p = 150 and 9p = 3n
p = 15 and n = 45.
Example 2 :
In a pollution study of 1500 Indian rivers the following data were reported, 520 were polluted by sulphur
compounds, 335 were polluted by phosphates, 425 were polluted by crude oil. 100 were polluted by both crude
oil and sulphur compounds, 180 were polluted by both sulphur compounds and phosphates, 150 were polluted
by both phosphates and crude oil and 28 were polluted by sulphur compounds, phosphates and crude oil. How
many of rivers were polluted by atleast one of the three impurties? How many rivers were polluted by exactly
one of the three impurties?
Solution :
Let U = Set of all Indian rivers studie for pollution n(u) = 1500
S = Set of all Indian rivers polluted with Sulphur compounds n(s) = 520
P = Set of all Indian rivers polluted with Phosphates compounds n(p) = 335
C = Set of all Indian rivers polluted with Crude oil n(c) = 425
Number of rivers polluted by at least one of three impurities
= n(S P C) = n(s) + n(p) + n(c) n(s p) n(p c) n(c s) + n(s p c)
= 520 + 335 + 425 180 150 100 + 28
= 878.
Number of rivers polluted by exactly one of the three impurities
= n(s) + n(p) + n(c) 2n(c p) 2n(p c) 2n(s c) + 3n(s p c)
= 520 + 335 + 425 2180 2150 2100 + 328
= 504.
(42)
Example 3 :
Let A and B have 3 and 6 elements respectively. The minimum number of elements in A B is
(1) 3 (2) 6 (3) 9 (4) 18
Solution :
Answer (2)
Quite clearly n(A B) will be minimum when either A B or B A. So here in this problem A B. Hence
n(A B) = n(B) = 6.
By Venn diagram
S
A B
min. n(A B) = 6
Example 4 :
If A, B and C are sets, then prove that (A B) (A C) = A (B C). Verify the above result by venn
diagrams.
Solution:
x (A B) (A C)
x (A B) and x (A C)
(x A and x B) and (x A and x C)
x A and x B and x C
x A and x (B C)
x A (B C)
A B X A B X A B X
C C C
(i) (A B) (A C) (ii) B C (iii) A (B C)
Clearly (i) = (iii), hence verified.
Example 5 :
A survey of 500 television watchers produced the following information: 285 watch foot ball, 195 watch hockey,
115 watch basket ball, 45 watch foot ball and basket ball, 70 watch foot ball and hockey, 50 watch hockey and
basket ball, 50 do not watch any of three games. How many watch all the three games? How many watch exactly
one of three games?
Solution :
Let x watch all the three.
S=500
F
H
x
75 +
+
x
0
17
x
50
45
x
20 + x 50
B
(43)
170 + x + 70 x + 45 x + x + 50 x + 75 + x + 20 + x = 500 50
430 + x = 450
x = 20
So 20 watch all the three games.
Exactly one of the three watches = 170 + x + 75 + x + 20 + x
= 265 + 3x = 265 + 60
= 325
Example 6 :
Which of the following is an empty set?
(a) {x : x is a real number and x2 1 = 0}
(b) {x : x is a real number and x2 + 1 = 0}
(c) {x : x is a real number and x2 9 = 0}
(d) {x : x is a real number and x2 = x + 2}
Solution :
Answer (b)
(a) x2 1 = 0 x = 1 hence {1, 1}
(b) x2 + 1 = 0; x2 = 1 x = i, not a real number hence
(c) x2 9 = 0; x = 3 hence { 3, 3}
(d) x2 x 2 = 0; x = 1 hence { 1, 2}
Clearly option (b) is empty set.
Example 7 :
Two finite sets A and B are having m and n elements respectively. The total number of subsets of the first
set is 56 more than the total number of subsets of the second set. The value of m, n are
(1) 7, 6 (2) 6, 3 (3) 5, 1 (4) 8, 7
Solution :
Answer (2)
Number of subsets of A = 2m
Number of subsets of B = 2n
Hence 2m 2n = 56 (given) (i)
Clearly option (b) i.e. m = 6, n = 3 satisfies e.g. (i) above.
Example 8 :
Let A and B be two non-empty subsets of set X such that A is not a subset of B, then
(1) A is a subset of B' (2) B A
(3) A and B are disjoint (4) A and B' are non-disjoint
(44)
Solution:
Answer (4)
Since A
B so only two possibilities arise as follows
X X
A A B
B
A B' Or A B'
B A B A
A and B are disjoint A and B are non-disjoint
A and B' are non-disjoint A and B' are non-disjoint
Hence option (4) is correct in both.
Example 9 :
If n() = 80; n(A) = 40; n(B) = 30 and n(A B)' = 15 then n(A B) is
Solution :
S=80
A
35 5 25
15
25+35+5+15=80
n(A B) = n() n(A B)' = 80 15 = 65

n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B)
65 = 40 + 30 n(A B)
n(A B) = 70 65 = 5
Example 10 :
1
A = {x : x R+}
x
1
B = {x : x R}
x
Show the sets A and B on a real number line and find A B.
Solution :
1 1
x 2 when x 0 and x 2 when x < 0.
x x
B A
2 0 2
Hence
Clearly A B = , since A and B are disjoint sets.
(45)
Example 11 :
Let A = {(x, y) : ax = ay; a > 0 and a 1; a, x, y R}
B ={(x, y) : xy = 1; x, y Ro}
Choose the correct statements amongst the following.
(1) A B = B (2) A B = A (3) n(B) > n(A) (4) A and B are non-comparable
Solution :
Answers (4)
Clearly ax = ay only if x = y. So A is set of all points on the line y = x.
B is a set on all points on rectangular hyperbola as shown.
(i) None of the sets is a subset of other.

(ii) Both are infinite sets.
(iii) A B, A B, B A hence A and B are non-comparable.
Example 12 :
1
Let A = { : sin , 0 2}
2
1
B = { : 0 cos , 0 2}
2
Shade the region A B on a circular number line for .
Solution :

2
3

5
6
6
0 or 2
5 Set A
3 3
2 Set B
Clearly A B is shown by cross grid
3 5
A B = :
2 3
(46)
Example 13 :
Let Z+ = Set of all positive integers
and R = {(a, b) : 3a + b = 0; a Z+}. Is R a relation on Z+. Explain
Solution :
3a + b = 0 b = 3a, a Z+
So b = 3, 6, 9...........
R = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9).......}
Here (1, 3) Z+ Z+, hence R is not a relation on Z+.
Example 14 :
Find the quadratic relation between the components of the ordered pairs of the relation R, where
R ={(0, 5), (1, 0), (2, 11), (3, 28)...........}
Solution :
Let y = ax2 + bx + c be the quadratic relation required.
Since (0, 5) R, 5 = 0 + 0 + c c = 5
(1, 0) R, 0 = a + b 5 a + b = 5 (i)
(2, 11) R, 11 = a.4 + b.2 5 4a + 2b = 16 (ii)
From (i) and (ii) above we get a = 3, b = 2
Hence y = 3x2 + 2x 5 is the required relation, clearly (3, 28) satisfies the relation found.
Example 15 :
Determine the domain and range of following relation
R = {(x, y) : y = x 2 , x, y Z, x 2}
Solution:
x 2 2 x 2, x Z
i.e. x = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2
Corresponding values of y are
y = 22 = 4 i.e. (2, 4) R
y = 1 2 = 3 i.e. (1, 3) R
y = 02 = 2 i.e. (0, 2) R
y = 1 2 = 1 i.e. (1, 1) R
y = 22 = 0 i.e. (2, 0) R
R = {(2, 4), (1, 3), (0, 2), (1, 1), (2, 0)}
Hence dom (R) = {2, 1, 0, 1, 2}
Range of R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
(47)
Example 16 :
Let R be a relation on set of real numbers (R) defined by
R = {(a, b) : a = b3 and a, b are real numbers}
Find domain and range of R.
Solution :
a R b b = a1/3
Since cube and cube roots of all real numbers whether positive, negative or zero are defined on a set of real
numbers then
Dom (R) = All real numbers
Range of R = All real numbers
Example 17 :
Let R be a relation on set of Real numbers defined by
R = {(x, y): y = x 1 + x 2 , 0 x 3}
By drawing a graph between x and y, find the range of R.
Solution :
y
Clearly domain of R = {x : 0 x 3, x set of real numbers}
3
When 0x1 y = 1 x + 2 x = 3 2x
1x2 y=x1+2x=1 2
2x3 y = x 1 + x 2 = 2x 3
1
Now the graph can be plotted Q
From the graph 1 y 3
0 1 2 3 x
So Range of R [1, 3]
Example 18 :
In column A below some relation sets are defined. Column B enlists the cardinal number of these sets. Match
the two columns.
A B
(a) R = {(x, y) : (x, y) Z Z, (x + y) (y + 2004) + 1 = 0} (i) 4
(b) R = {(x, y) : (x, y) Z Z, 9x2 + 4y2 = 62 (ii) 3
(c) R = {(x, y) : (x, y) N N, 2 x 6, 3 < y < 7, x & y are co-prime} (iii) 2
1
(d) R = {( x, ) : 0 < x < 4, x N} (iv) 7
x
Solution :
Answer : (a)(iii), (b)(i), (c)(iv), (d)(ii)
(a) (x + y) (y + 2004) = 1 where x, y Z
Only possible when either x + y = 1 and y + 2004 = 1 x = 2006, y = 2005
or x + y = 1 and y + 2004 = 1 x = 2002, y = 2003
or R = {(2002, 2003), (2006, 2005)} so n(R) = 2
(48)
(b) 9x2 + 4y2 = 36 here least value of x2 = 0 (i.e. x = 0) and maximum value of y2 = 9 (i.e. y = 3) also least
value of y2 = 0 (y = 0) hence maximum of x2 = 4 (x = 2)
So we get four solution (0, 3), (0, 3), (2, 0), (2, 0).
For x = 1, y Z, similarly for y = 1 or 2 x Z.
So cardinal number of R is 4.
(c) Possible x = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and possible y = 4, 5, 6
x and y are co-prime so (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 6), (6, 5) are only 7 solutions are possible.
So, n(R) = 7.
1 1 1 1
(d) For x = 1, 2 and 3 corresponding are , and
x 1 2 3
So 3 ordered pairs satisfy R.

n(R) = 3.
Example 19 :
Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = S S. A relation R on A is defined as follows :

(a, b) R (c, d) iff ad = cb. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution :
Check for reflexivity:
(a, b) R (a, b) iff ab = ba true
Hence R is reflexive
Check for being symmetric:
(a, b) R (c, d) ad = bc
(c, d) R (a, b) cb = da true

Hence R is symmetric
Check for transitivity:
(a, b) R (c, d) ad = bc .... (i)
(c, d) R (e, f) cf = de .... (ii)
(a, b) R (e, f) af = be .... (iii)
Multiply (i) and (ii) we get (iii)
Hence R is transitive
So R is an equivalence relation.
Example 20 :
x R y x y + 3 is an irrational number.
Consider the above relation and find whether R is an equivalence relation or not, when
(i) x, y set of real numbers.
(ii) x, y set of rational numbers.
(49)
Solution :
(i) x, y real numbers: x y + 3 is always an irrational number x R. Hence given relation is reflexive.
3 3
Let us choose x and y
2 2
then x y + 3 = 2 3 an irrational number
but y x + 3 = 0 a rational number

Hence R is not symmetric.
Let us choose x = 3 , y = 3 and Z = 2 3
x y + 3 Q
y z + 3 Q
x z + 3 = 0 Q
Hence R is not transitive, when x, y real number set. Not an equivalent relations.
(ii) x, y Q
It is well known that
xx=0Q
x x + 3 = 0 + 3 Q
Hence reflexive
x y and y x both will be rational.
Hence x y + 3 as well as y x + 3 is always irrational (Note: Sum of a rational and irrational is

always irrational)
Hence R is symmetric
x y + 3 Q
y z + 3 Q
x z + 3 Q Hence transitive.
So when x, y Q, given relation is an equivalence relation.
Example 21 :
Consider the following relations, defined as
R1 = {(a, b) : a divides b; a, b N}
R2 = {(a, b) : a is parallel to b; a, b set of all lines in a plane}
R3 = {(a, b) : a = b2; a, b R}
R4 = {(a, b) : a is perpendicular to b; a, b set of all lines in a plane}
Complete the following table with True (T) or False (F)
Partial
Anti- Equivalence Ordered
Reflexive Symmetric Transitive Order
Symmetric Relation Relation
Relation
R1
R2
R3
R4
(50)
Solution:
R1 is reflexive as a divides a is true.
R1 is not symmetric as if a divide b, b does not divide a if a and b are different.
R1 is antisymmetric (when a and b are equal)
R1 is transitive as if a divides b and b divides c, a divides c.
R1 is hence not an equivalence relation.
R1 is ordered relation.
R1 is partial ordered relation.
R2 is clearly reflexive, symmetric, transitive hence equivalence relation, not antisymmetric, not ordered relation
and not partial ordered relation.
R3 a = a2 not always true hence not reflexive if a = b2 then b may not be equal to a2, not symmetric if
a = b2 and b = c2 then a may not be equal to c2 not transitive. if a = b then only two pairs of real numbers
i.e. (0, 0) and (1, 1) satisfy R3
Hence R3 is antisymmetric, not equivalence relation, not ordered relation and not partial order relation.
R4 not reflexive, symmetric, not transitive, not equivalence relation, not antisymmetric (as x0 line is perpendicular
to itself) not partial order relation and not ordered relation. so the solution is as follow.
Partial
Anti- Equivalence Ordered
Reflexive Symmetric Transitive Order
Symmetric Relation Relation
Relation
R1 T F T T F T T
R2 T T F T T F F
R3 F F T F F F F
R4 F T F F F F F
Example 22 :
x
If f : (3, 4) (2, 4), f(x) : x where [] denote step function then find the f1(x).
2
Solution :
x
f(x) = x
2
x
Domain of this function is (3, 4) in this domain = 1
2
So function is f(x) = x 1
or y = x 1
x=y+1
On interchanging x and y we get
y=x+1 f1(x) = x + 1.
(51)
Example 23 :
x 3 x 1
Find the domain of the function, f ( x ) sin 1 cos 1 .
5 4

Solution :
x 3

Domain of sin1 5 say D1 and

x 1

Domain of cos1 4 say D2

So Domain of f(x) is D1 D2
x 3 x 1
For D1 1 for D2 1
5 4
5 |x| 3 5 4 |x| + 1 4
2 |x| 8 5 |x| 3
|x| 2 and |x| 8 |x| 5, and |x| 3
so x [8, 8] so x [3, 3]
so Domain of f(x) is [8, 8] [3, 3]
= [3, 3].
Example 24 :
If f : [1, 1] B and f(x) = sin1 x, if f(x) is one-one onto function then find value of B.
Solution :
In one-one onto function range of f = co-domain of f (which is B)

So range of function for x [1, 1] is , so B , .
2 2 2 2
Example 25 :
x 1 x2 1
If f , then find the value of f(2).
x 2 x2 2
Solution :
x 1 x2 1
f ....(1)
x 2 x2 2
x 1 1 2y
Put y x
x2 y 1
(52)
Put these value in equation (1)
2
1 2y
1
y 1
So f(y) = 1 2y 2
2
y 1
1 2y 2 ( y 1)2
f(y) =
1 2y 2 2( y 1)2
(1 4)2 (2 1)2 8
So value of f(2) = 2 2
.
(1 4 ) 2(2 1) 11
Example 26 :
Find the domain of the function f(x) = logx (x2 3x + 2).
Solution :
Logax exist if x > 0 and 0 < a < 1, a > 1

Now f(x) = logx (x2 3x + 2)
x2 3x + 2 > 0 (x 1) (x 2) > 0, x ( 1) (2, )
But x > 1 or 0 < x < 1
So common value of x is (0, 1) (2, ).
Domain of f(x) (0, 1) (2, )
Example 27 :
x 1 ; x 0
If f ( x )
x ; x0
and
x 1 ; x 1
g(x) .
x 2 ; x 1
Then find (f + g) (x) and draw its graph.
Solution :
x 1 ; x 1

f ( x ) x 1 ; 1 x 0
x ; x 0

x 1 ; x 0

x 1 ; 0 x 1
g( x )
x 2 ; 1 x 2
x 2 ; x2
(53)
x 1 x 1 ; x 1 2 x ; x 1

x 1 x 1 ; 1 x 0 2 ; 1 x 0
f ( x ) g ( x ) x x 1 ; 0 x 1 2 x 1 ; 0 x 1
x x 2 ; 1 x 2 2 x 2 ; 1 x 2

x x 2 ; x2 2 ; x2
3
2
1
1 0 1 2
Example 28 :
If f(sin 2x) = cos2x (sec2 x + 2 tanx) then find domain and range of f.
Solution :
f(sin2x) = 1 + 2sin x cosx = 1 + sin2x
Let u = sin2x so f (u) = 1 + u
since 1 sin 2x 1 so dom f = [1, 1]
Now 1 u 1
0 1 + u 2. Thus the range f = [0, 2]
Example 29 :
x 2 2x c
Show that the function f ( x ) attains any real value if 0 < c 1
x 2 4 x 3c
Solutions :
x 2 2x c
Let m where m is an arbitrary real number, then (m1) x2 + 2 (2m 1) x + c(3m1) = 0, the argument
x 2 4 x 3c
x must be a real number, hence (2m 1)2 (m 1)(3m c c) 0 > 0 or (4 3c)m2 4(c 1)m (c1)0, but since
m is a real number, this inequality in turn is valid under the conditions:
(i) 43c > 0 (ii) 4(c1)2 + (43c) 4(c1) 0,
Hence 0 c 1, but by hypothesis c 0
Example 30 :
x 2 6 x 8
A function f : R R, is defined by : f ( x )
6x 8 x 2
Find the interval of values of for which f is onto. Is the function one-one for = 3 ?
Solution :
x 2 6 x 8
Let m ( 8m ) x 2 6(1 m ) x (8 m ) 0
6x 8x 2
Since x is real,
36 (1 m)2 + 4( + 8m)(8 +m) 0
(54)
(9 + 8) m2 + (46 + 2) m + (9 + 8) 0
f is onto if and only if the above relation hold for all m R. This will happen if
9 + 8 > 0 and (46 + 2)2 4 (9 + 8)2 0
9 + 8 > 0 and (2 + 16 + 64) (2 16 +28) 0
9 + 8 > 0 and ( + 8)2 ( 2) ( 14) 0
> 9/8 and 2 14. Thus 2 14
3x 2 6 x 8
when = 3, m 2
3 6x 8 x
For m = 0, we get 3x2 + 6x 8 = 0
x
6 36 96 1
6

3 33
3

Hence f is not oneone when = 3
Example 31 :
Show that sin x is not periodic
Solution :
Suppose that f(x) = sin x is periodic with period T. Then,
f ( x T ) sin x T f ( x ) sin x ; x 0
x T T x T x
2 cos sin 0
2 2
x T T
cos 0
2
x T x
or sin 0
2

x T x 2( 2n 1) ( 2n 1), n I
2
or x T x 2n, n I
The above equalities gives T as function of x. But for f(x) to be periodic T should be constant i.e. independent
of x.
Hence f(x) can not be periodic.
(55)
Example 32 :
x x x x x
Find the period of cos x cot cos 2 cot 3 ........ cos n 1 cot n
2 2 2 2 2
Solution :
Since the period of cos ax(a > 0) is 2/a and the period of cot ax (a > 0) is /a, the periods of cosx,
x x
cosx/22, ....., cos x/2n1 are 2, 22(2) ......., 2n1(2) and the period of cot ,....., cot n are 2, ...., 2n.
2 2
Hence the period of the given function is L.C.M of (2, 23, ..., 2n) = 2n.
(56)

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Sets, Relations and Functions

4. The collection of all prime-ministers of India.

x A 'x does not belong to A'

6 set of English alphabet.

Write each of the following into another form of set writing.

Set of all Symbol i.e.

Set of all Symbol i.e.

Real Numbers (R) Imaginary Numbers

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers

Integers (I) or (Z) Fractions

Whole Numbers (W)

Natural Numbers (N)

A set which has no element. It is denoted by or {}.

a. {0} or { } is not an empty set.

b. is called the null set and () not a null set.

c. is a subset of every set.

d. Cardinal number of is zero.

is a finite set as n() 0

Match the following columns.

(d) As no Indian Prime Minister has been a Muslim so far so D =

Find the only correct option among following.

SUBSETS, SUPERSETS, PROPER SUBSETS

n(n 1)(n 2).....upto r terms

The number of subsets of A having no element = n C o = 1 i.e.

The number of subsets of A having one element = n C1

The number of subsets of A having two elements = n C 2

Mark T/F against the each statement given below:

Match the following columns.

(d) A = {(x, y) : x2 + y2 1, x, y R} (iv) AB

Some More Representations on Number Line

A = {a, b, c} A B; A = {a, b}; B = {a, b, c, d}; e A; e B

Various Operations on Sets

INTERSECTION OF TWO SETS

Considering the wall-clock as shown in figure.

A and B are disjoint

Note: If A1, A2 ............ An are pairwise disjoint then A1 A2 ......... An = ,

A B C = ; but A and B, B and C are not disjoint.

A B, when A and B A B = when

Symmetric Difference of Two Sets

A' = AC = C(A) = U A = {x : x U and x A}

If A = {5, 6, 7, 8}; B = {3, 9, 8, 10} and S = {1, 2, 3, 4....... 10} then,

(a) (A B) = {1, 2, 3, 4} (b) (A B) = {8}

(c) (A B) = (A B) (d) None of these is true

A B = {8} hence (A B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10}, (b) is wrong.

(A B) = {1, 2, 4} (A B), (c) is wrong.

Hence answer (d) is correct.

If A = {(x, y) : y = ex; x R} U = {(x, y) : x, y R} U

Shade (A B) (A C) in the following diagrams

SOME THEOREMS For any sets A, B and C, we have

Some Basic Results about Cardinal Numbers

Ordered pairs (a, b) and (b, a) are different.

A A = A2 : R R = R2 is a set of all points lying in the plane

Let A = {a, b}, B = {c, d}, C = {e, f}

Each element of A B shall be an ordered pair or 2tuple

Key Results on Cartesian Product

If n(A) = 7, n(B) = 8 and n(A B) = 4, then match the following columns.

(ii) n(A B) (b) 16

(iv) n((A B) (B A)) (d) 96