Ethnomedicine Traditional Knowledge Nort PDF
Ethnomedicine Traditional Knowledge Nort PDF
Ethnomedicine Traditional Knowledge Nort PDF
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Aim of the study: Family Zingiberaceae consists of large number of medicinal plants and is well known
Received 30 April 2010 for its use in ethnomedicine. The objective of this study is to systematically analyse and document the
Received in revised form 9 August 2010 traditional knowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treatment of various human
Accepted 11 August 2010
ailments from NE India, adding information to the valuation of biodiversity and, to forward suggestions
Available online 18 August 2010
for its sustainable use, conservation and for future pharmacological studies.
Materials and methods: A survey on the utilization of medicinal plants belonging to Zingibereceae of
Keywords:
North-eastern states was carried out by interviewing herbalists followed by collecting plant specimens
Ethnomedicine
Traditional knowledge
and identifying the specimen. Ethnobotanical information on traditional plants was catalogued through
Northeast India structured questionnaires in consultations with traditional healers.
Zingiberaceae Results: A total of 34 species were documented belonging to 9 genera of Zingiberaceae for about 25 types
of ailments, 67.6% of which were used in curing multiple disorders. Arunachal Pradesh hosts maximum
number of Zingiberaceous plant (88%). Rhizomes were found to be the primary plant material as a source
for medication and poultices as the predominant mode of preparation. Gastrointestinal conditions (58%)
and chest and lungs (41%) related ailments were the main categories for which these plants are used.
Conclusions: The study establishes Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family since 41% of all the available
Zingiberaceous plant species in NE were found to possess medicinal value. Some new use of herbs also
appeared in this study for the rst time.
2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
0378-8741/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.032
Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296 287
nals continue to live in rural areas having a strong hold to original monsoon season, a special account was taken to organize the visits
ethnic faith with an exception of Apatani, which has 51.4% urban during this season. Most of the Zingiberaceous plants are rare and
population. Mizoram has large ethnic population (94.5%) of which some are endangered too. Moreover many plants grew on slopes
almost 50% reside in urban areas. With this shift of the population of hills, so at times; it was not only difcult but also inaccessible
to urban areas, the dependence on modern medicine is likely to for collection and subsequent documentation. Since the choice of
be on rise and thereby depletion of indigenous knowledge health individual informant to be interviewed was of great importance to
system. Certain community like Nyishi people still continue to the reliability of the information, all contacts were established with
believe that diseases are due to the evil spirits or because of break- elderly and local practitioners. Before interviewing any respondent,
ing of the traditional rules. The knowledge of producing herbal the study team members explained the objectives of the study,
medicine in a systematic ritual manner is acquired through ages methods and the plans for use of the data that were to be gener-
by experience and is very much guarded secretly among certain ated from the interviews. Verbal consent to conduct the interviews
families and clan. The plants used and the methods of preparation was sought from every respondent before the interview and was
of herbal medicine are often closely guarded secrets, usually only granted in every case. We selected healers who utilized medicinal
passed from father to the eldest son as the death of the former plants as therapeutic substance and treated patients outside their
approaches. The healers from ethnic population keep their eth- immediate circle of family and friends. Particularly in some cases
nomedicinal knowledge condential as they justify that sharing they were the only known healer in the region. A total number of
knowledge with others will result in the loss of healinga belief 370 healers were interviewed. The healers were asked to identify
that is closely safeguarded. Apart from the factor mentioned above, the plant species from his/her collection as well as from the natural
the reason for the loss of knowledge is attributed to the folklore habitat. A structured interview form was used to collect informa-
nature than a well-documented system. For the conservation of tion in the local language and respondents were queried for the
indigenous knowledge the proper documentation has been sug- herbal remedy known to him or her for various diseases. Tradi-
gested (Rao, 2006). Moreover, the naturally occurring molecules tional healers identied some of the not immediately recognized
are in great demand as a new potent drug molecule due to ever diseases based on the symptoms and physical examinations. Cer-
evolving microorganisms and their lack of side effects. Further as tain diseases are known to healers not by name but by the specic
the health care cost continues to rise speedily; the attraction of low symptoms and condition, as exhibited by patient. These include
cost remedies has stimulated consumers to re-visit the potential of gastric ulcer, pulmonary tuberculosis, gravel, pneumonia, ascites
alternatives (Bouldin et al., 1999). and diabetes. The name of such disease has been assigned based
The family Zingiberaceae well known for its immense medici- on the symptoms described by the healers. Since the traditional
nal values is distributed widely throughout the tropics, particularly healers diagnose ailments only by physical examination so at times
in Southeast Asia. Zingiberaceae family is an important natu- the disease is identied at a late and acute phase as in pulmonary
ral resource that provides many useful products for food, spices, tuberculosis and ascites. The mode of preparation and administra-
medicines, dyes, perfume and aesthetics (Jantan et al., 2003). India tion were also recorded. The acquired data were also cross-checked
is one of the richest and diverse regions for Zingiberaceae, having for its pharmacological signicance with the available literature. All
22 genera and about 170 species. The NE region of India is a zone doubtful and misleading cases where the informants showed little
of greatest concentration where 19 genera and about 88 species knowledge concerning the identication of plant species either in
are reported (Prakash and Mehrotra, 1995). Most of the members the eld or from specimens were excluded from this survey and the
of Zingiberaceae are found here at wild states, which are yet to information provided was discarded. A medicinal use was accepted
be explored. Local literature survey have pointed out that there as valid only if it was conrmed by at least two separate healers. The
are numerous medicinal plants described for treatment of many information obtained was documented in a tabular form. The data
diseases and herbal medicine. However, there is no report on eth- included the botanical name, local name, location, plant parts used,
nobotanical study of Zingiberaceae of NE to be effective in a very mode of preparation, administration and their utility as remedy for
wide range of diseases. There is an utmost need for such studies as treating human diseases. The list of major ailments was compiled
the environmental scenario of the region is changing drastically due and the number of plants utilized in treatment was determined.
to myriad number of anthropogenic activities and rapid urbaniza- The collected plants along with the rhizome and owers were
tion. The conservation of the rich biodiversity and ethnobotanical properly tagged and maintained in the departmental green house,
information requires strong steps. Various ethnobotanical surveys IITG and botanical garden of Gauhati University (GU). Hooker
and studies are a prerequisite in attaining these goals. The objec- (1875) and Petersen (1889) were used as reference for identica-
tive of this study is to document and critically analyse traditional tion of the plants. The features were also preserved as herbaria for
knowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treat- future reference at Botanical Garden, GU and a copy of the same is
ment of various human ailments from NE India. Such a study may being maintained at IITG with the authors. Taxonomists at Botany
add information to the valuation of biodiversity and to forward Department GU, Assam, later identied the specimens. The botan-
suggestions for its sustainable use and conservation. ical name was written as in IPNI database.
The current ethnopharmacological survey was conducted in The survey involved 34 plants belonging to 9 genera of the fam-
seven states of NE, namely: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, ily Zingiberaceae from NE region of India. Most of the plant species
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura by making eld trips grow naturally in the different regions and their properties are
to parts of NE during the period March 2008 to August 2009. important in traditional herbal medicine. Therefore some plants
Trips were made to villages and areas inhabited by indigenous are commonly cultivated for its use as spice and vegetables. The
people during different seasons, so as to include wide number of number of healers from a particular community varied from 3 to
species of the family. A total of 14 communities (Apatani, Nyishi, 79. During the process of this study, an average of 31 healers per
Hill Miris, Chakma, Khamptis, Adi, Bodo, Lushai, Thai-Ahom, Garo, community was interviewed. The average male informer to female
Lakher, Pawi, Jaintia and Bork) were visited during the study. As the informer ratio was found to be 6:5. Interestingly in Garo community
members of the family Zingiberaceae are known to bloom during from Meghalaya the number of female informer was found to be
288
Table 1
List of plants and their application in context to ethnomedicine as prevalent in use by various ethnic communities of NE region, India.
Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available
Alpinia allughas (Retx) ROS. Deotora (Chakma, Arunachal Pradesh Fruits and rhizome Crushed fruits are applied. To treat ring worm. Antioxidant (Vankar et al.,
Arunachal Pradesh) Rhizome extract taken Antipyretic 2006)
orally.
Alpinia bracteata Rosc. (Syn Latara (Khasi) Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Crushed rhizome Tooth decay, abnormal Antinociceptive
Alpinia calcarata). menstruation (Arambewela et al., 2004),
antioxidant (Thabrew et al.,
2001)
Alpinia galanga L. Karphul, Kulajan Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome and Shoot The rhizome is used to Stimulant and carminative Antifungal (Janssen and
(Assamese); Kanghoo Manipuri, Mizoram, create a tincture that is in atulence, laxative Scheffer, 1985),
(Manipuri); Aaichal (Mizo); Nagaland applied topically to treat dyspepsia, vomiting and Antiallergic (Matsuda et al.,
King Pang (Khampti, fungal skin infections. sickness at stomach. 2003a), Gastroprotective
Arunachal Pradesh) Rhizome powder mixed Inammation and skin (Matsuda et al., 2003b),
with young leaf paste of allergy caused by insect Antimycobacterial
Euphorbia neriifolia and bites or microbes. (Phongpaichit et al., 2006)
applied locally. For abortion
Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Whole plant including Rhizome extract Burning sensation, Sexual hormones and
Manipur, Meghalaya, rhizome Raw plant is taken orally. atulence, constipation, contraceptives (Warrier et
Nagaland, Tripura Fresh rhizome extract helminthiasis, leprosy, skin al., 1993)
orally taken twice daily for diseases, fever, hiccough,
3 days. asthma, bronchitis,
Raw seeds are chewed bleeding from nose and
several times. mouth inammation and
Rhizome essential oil. anaemia
Stem extract mixed with Tonsillitis
sugarcane juice is taken Dog bite
orally. Contraceptive
Rhizome and stem are Jaundice
eaten raw. Urinary problems and
Warm stem juice is blood in urine
applied. Snake or insect bite
289
290
Table 1 (Continued)
Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available
Curcuma domestica (Medik) Haldi (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome The dried powder of Against burn by re Anticancer activity
Valh. Yaingang (Manipuri) Manipur, Nagaland rhizome. (anti-inammatory), performed on national
atulence, jaundice, human prostate epithelial
Scabies cell line PrEC and normal
human bronchial epithelial
cell line Beas2B (Shankar
and Srivastava, 2007),
antioxidant (Ramsewak et
al., 2000),
anti-inammatory
(Ramsewak et al., 2000;
Chainani-Wu, 2003),
antifungal (Apisariyakul et
al., 1995), antibacterial
Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available
Hedychium spicatum SM. Takhellei-hanggam-mapan Arunachal Pradesh, Rhizome Root decoction Nausea, Bronchial Asthma, Antibacterial against
(Manipuri); Aithur (Mizo) Manipur, Meghalaya, Powder of root Halitosis, Vomiting and methicillin and
Karpurakachari (Bengali) Mizoram indigestion, expectorant; vancomycin resistant
stimulant; stomachic Staphylococcus aureus and
Treatment of liver fungal cultures (Bisht et al.,
complaint, treating fevers, 2006)
vomiting, diarrhoea,
inammation, pains and
snake bite, heating potency
to the female, stimulant,
expectorant, tonic,
carmative
Kaempferia galanga L. Chandramula (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Leaves and rhizomes The rhizome is externally Treating indigestion, cold, Larvicidal activity (Othman
Sying khmoh, Sying shmoh used. pectoral and abdominal et al., 2006), inhibits
291
292
Table 1 (Continued)
Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available
Zingiber ofcinale Rosc. Ada (Assamese); Shing Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome The juice extracted from Promotes digestive power, Rheumatism and
(Manipuri) Manipur, Meghalaya, the rhizome is mixed with cleanses the throat and inammation of liver
Mizoram, Nagaland, molasses and taken orally. tongue, dispels cardiac (Aiyer and Kolammal,
Tripura Rhizomes along Nigella disorders and cures 1966; Kurup et al., 1979).
Fig. 2. Percentage use of Zingiberaceous plants for treating various human ailments. Highest percentage of plants used is observed for treatment of gastrointestinal ailments
that is also supported by large number of pharmacological reports. Percentage was calculated over number of plants documented in the current study.
munity of AP is a new report. Use of Globba multiora Wall. and edge. In this study the information regarding the medicinal uses
Hedychium coccineum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. species as an antipyretics of Zingiberaceae family by aboriginal people of NE India was sys-
and anti-inammatory (in case of bruise and wounds) respectively, tematically collected and critically analysed. A total of 34 plant
has never been reported till date. Similarly the property of Cos- species belonging to the family were identied to possess medicinal
tus variagata L. is known for generations altogether but its use for importance and primary activity seems to be against gastroin-
curing piles is a new report. testinal ailments. This is also reected by the scientic literature
From this study certain plants have emerged as critical species, (Yamazaki et al., 2000; Gilani et al., 2005). In at least two ethnic
which deserves extra attention by researchers, and are possi- communities, the highest number of species used for the gastroin-
ble source of potent drug molecule. For example use of Alpinia testinal ailments have been found and it needs to be exploited.
bracteata Rosc. crushed rhizome as a cure for abnormal menstrua- The unhygienic livelihood compounded by the excessive alcohol
tion. Another plant belonging to the same genus as previous, Alpinia consumption of the surveyed ethnic communities was found to be
galanga L. is used as an abortifacient. These two examples are major concern of the severe gastrointestinal problems. This is fol-
inkling towards presence of a potent molecule, which can moder- lowed by the chest related problems, which was due to excessive
ate hormone levels. Further in vitro studies can help in elucidation smoking and chewing of tobacco among the males. The use of sin-
of the mechanism involved. Costus specious seed was found to be gle plant as a therapy for an ailment was observed to be 84% which
used as contraceptive and its importance is augmented by the fact is a good indication for future research leading to drug discovery.
that it is not used in combination with any other herbs. Zingiber pur- Poultices (32.3%) and maceration (28.41%) were the most frequent
pureum Rosc. use against paralysis, points its activity as neural or way of preparation and hence no complex procedure involved in
muscular stimulant. A detailed study of the bioactive of the above application of these species. Alpinia bracteata, Alpinia galenga L.,
species may yield novel drug molecule. Costus specious and Zingiber purpureum are some of the important
Apart from this study, there have been some reports of eth- species for future work. The future research focused on coupled
nomedical survey, in which Zingiberaceous species from NE region phytochemicals-pharmacological studies can help in elucidation of
have been documented. In particular, some species that has been novel phytotherapeutic molecules. Most of the persons from whom
cited in other studies, but not reported in this study include Alpinia we had gathered the information are illiterate and at times there
ofcinarum Hance. (Sharma et al., 2001) and Hedychium dekianum is no script for the language they speak, hence the herbal practices
A.S. Rao & Verma (Kala, 2005). As 34 plant species have been are running in mouth to mouth without any written documents.
reported in this particular study and including the two other mem- Therefore there is an utmost need to document the traditional and
bers that has been cited in other studies, the count reaches to 36. A cultural practices including from remotely located region where
total of 88 Zingiberaceae members have been reported from the the different communities has been living in harmony for centurys
NE region alone out of which 41% have been found to possess altogether.
medicinal property. Thus it can be said now that the discovery of The work has brought to light some hidden but popular prescrip-
different plant species belonging to the family Zingiberaceae used tions of ethnic group of the NE region. These new prescription will
by different ethnic communities of NE India lays the grounds for help mankind in short term, by providing improved phytothera-
establishing Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family. peutic preparations while an extensive pharmacological study will
elucidate new drug molecule. Though some scientic literature is
4. Conclusion available for most of the species, the specic properties of all the
species has not been studied yet. A further pharmacological study
Northeast India is an important reservoir of rich ora with of these particular and scientically unexplored properties of Zin-
diverse ethnic population and their traditionally conserved knowl- giberaceae appears promising. Further, a concrete list of plants
Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296 295
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The authors duly acknowledge the local herbalist in particular Jeenapongsa, R., Yoovathaworn, K., Sriwatanakul, K.M., Pongprayoon, U., Sri-
village and other representative people for their immense help and watanakul, K., 2003. Anti-inammatory activity of (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)
guidance rendered during ethnobotanical eld work. The authors butadiene from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87,
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are also indebted to the Conservator of Forests and Field Director Kala, C.P., 2005. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan
of respective states of NE for granting permission to carry out the region of India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1, 11.
study. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Uni- Kanjanapothi, D., Panthong, A., Lertprasertsuke, N., Taesotikul, T., Rujjanawate, C.,
Kaewpinit, D., Sudthayakorn, R., Choochote, W., Chaithong, U., Jitpakdi, A., Pita-
versity. Sincere thanks to Botany Department, Gauhati University, sawat, B., 2004. Toxicity of crude rhizome extract of Kaempferia galanga L. (Proh
for identication and maintenance of plant material. Tushar thanks Hom). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 90, 359365.
Department of Information Technology (DIT) and SB thanks Min- Khayungamnawee, A., Thubthimthed, S., Sematong, T., Supattanakul, W., Suntorn-
tanasat, T., 2009. Anti-inammatory effect of the Phlai oil, distilled from 1 year
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old Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex. Dietr. rhizome. Thai Journal of Phar-
India for fellowship. LR acknowledges funding by the Department of macology 31, 2009.
Information Technology, Ministry of Information Technology, Gov- Kim, K.J., Yu, H.H., Cha, J.D., Seo, S.J., Choi, N.Y., You, Y.O., 2005. Antibacterial activity of
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Kumar, A., Singh, A., 2008. Possible nitric oxide modulation in protective
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